Ashé Pyee, the superior country : or, the Great attractions of Burma to British enterprise and commerce

> '-'■

tQ

M

ASHE PYEE,

THE SUPEEIOE COUNTRY

OR,

C|t iwat ^Itrattions of ^urnra is ^ritisj

BY

COLONEL W. F. B. LAURIE,

▲ITTHOB OF " OUR BURMESE WARS AND RELATIONS WITH BURMA, ETC.

" Look here upon this picture, and on this."

HAMiiET, Act 3, Scene i.

It is evident that the country and the people have before them a great
future."

Sib Abthub Phatee, at the Society of Arts, May 1881.

LONDON :

W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATEKLOO PLACE,

PALL MALL, S.W.

1882.

(AU Bijhts Reserved,)

\

PBINXEU 1.V W. K. ALLSN & CO., 1^^ ./ATKBLOO Pi.A. t.,

PKEFACE

Eeader, this is a peaceful book. Unlike its far
larger and more ambitious predecessor, it does not
deal with war. Peace, national security, and com-
mercial prosperity are its watch- words ; and if
these three can be perpetuated and extended in the
** superior country" here under consideration,
without war and without annexation, the greater
will be the triumph of British statesmanship.
Lord Bipon, wishing to carry out the spirit of
Lord Canning's proclamation of 1858, last year
declared that the continuation of Native States was
an advantage to such states, and to Great Britain.
Of course, there must be exceptions to such a wise,
general rule. Great Britain, unfortunately, too
often finds herself, while endeavouring to civilise
mankind, in the position of the Psalmist, who was
for peace while his enemies sought for war. Peace

m2490o

VI PREFACE.

on earth is still very far distant. Nowhere seems
she to find " rest with men." The Burmese
Question, in the humble opinion of the writer,
should now occupy the large share of public atten-
tion which has been given throughout the past
year or more to Afghanistan ; and when the Viceroy
has so forcibly remarked that peace and rest are
the real wants of India, in order that the country
might ** devote itself to the improvement of its
agriculture and commerce " — our late military
successes and upholding of British prestige in the
former region affording suitable opportunity for
such a remark — turning from Afghanistan to
Burma at this time would seem to be a natural and
prudent step. It is just one from financial ruin to
financial prosperity, with Commerce beckoning to
her enterprising supporters to come on. As a
practical subject of the first importance, the Bur-
mese comes far nearer to us than many other
questions ; for in its settlement a lasting good is
sure to follow ; while as regards the solution of
other weighty national problems, it must candidly
be said, at present —

'* The dawn is overcast, the morning lours,
And heavily in clouds brings in the day."

Is it not pleasing, then, to turn from such gloomy

prospects, and give attention to where Hope, on

PBEFAOE. Vll

practical grounds, pictures the dawn of a pros-
perous and tranquil day breaking out in all Burma ;
a land in these fast times of education and so-called
national enlightenment shamefully unknown to the
inteUigent classes of Great Britain. However
tribes may be warring against tribes in the East at
the present time — however wily European diplo-
matists may be looking out for the decline of
Albion's influence in Asia — let us be placed on
sound and profitable as well as peaceful relations
with the people of our next-door neighbour, Upper
Burma. With the lower portion of the country
under our control, paying for years past a
surplus revenue of some millions sterHng to the
Indian Imperial Treasury, surely the upper portion
demands far more attention than it has yet received ;
for, as hereafter will be urged, the real interests
of the two are inseparable. But, look on the two
pictures — on British and Independent Burma ; what
a difference in local progress, happiness, and pros-
perity ! And what a tremendous difference between
the results of the last Afghan and the Second
Burmese Wars. There is something terribly mono-
tonous about many of the political questions of the
day. '' Fresh woods and pastures new " are urgently
required by politicians as well as by the\ public.
In the spirit of what Grattan said of Ireland, when

Vm PEEFACE.

he gave her a free trade by opening all her har-
bours, we may yet hope to see the land of the Golden
Foot ^* rise from her bed and get nearer to the sun."
It may hereafter form the subject of grand
debates in Parliament. When the great governing
intellects now grappling with a most serious and
distressing question at home shall have conquered
every difficulty, they may, perhaps, devote some of
the working of their comprehensive and practical
minds to long-neglected Burma and the Burn:ese
Question, which is simply — '^Can we establish
sound political and commercial relations with Upper
Burma? " Although written or compiled with much
peaceful intent, this little book may be deemed a
fitting companion to Our Burmese Wars and Relations
with Burma ; and in a brief space the writer has
endeavoured to entertain as well as instruct. With
a special view to this end, the last three or four
chapters are submitted to public notice.

To the London Press the Author is very thankful
for the kind, judicious, and frequently elaborate
critiques his former work had the honour to receive
from those competent to form an opinion ; while
to other would-be censors who were not com-
petent— lacking, as they did, the chief requisites
for a critic, information and impartiality — he is
also obliged, as such amiable litterateurs, taking

PBEFACE. IX

up a somewhat novel and important Eastern
subject, may eventually be led, through careful
study, to become kinder or wiser men, and better
critics.

The Author cannot conclude this Preface without
remarking on the strange contrast between the
state of affairs at the end of the last and close of
the preceding year. In 1879, all was uncertainty
and '' toil and trouble " in Afghanistan. Fighting
before Cabul ; attacks on General Roberts ; warning
to Ayub Khan, as to his holding Herat ; with nume-
rous Russian intrigues in Central and Western Asia ;
while in Eastern, the Chinese seemed to be going
ahead in their usual way. And, also, at the close
of 1879, although there appeared to be little chance
of our being launched into a serious war with
Upper Burma, there was a great dispute between
the Chief of Karennee and King Theebau, which
might have led to blows. At the end of 1880,
things became more settled. A political enchanter
seemed to be at work ; success after disaster cheered
us on in Afghanistan ; and although a British Resi-
dent was sadly wanted at Mandalay, the Burmese
capital, to supervise the Golden Foot, and procure
valuable information, the spirit of affairs was
changed, as if by magic. True enough, China
appeared to be more resolute than ever to defy

X PREFACE.

Eussia in her long course of hereditary aggression ;
while the brave and energetic Skobeleff was
engaged among the fierce Turkomans. Then
China was ordering Austrian ordnance rifles, in
preference to the German, thereby showing inde-
pendent action and practical knowledge in the selec-
tion of arms. On the whole, things were in a far
better condition throughout Eastern Asia, than they
had been for some time but, during the first
half of 1881, affairs again, in certain quarters, be-
came somewhat shrouded in mystery. Upper Burma
— too long silent for any good — appeared to be
resuming, through its capricious and monopolising
King, the old ways of error ; while China was
about to conclude a remarkable treaty with Eussia
— a treaty of the cession of Kuldja (or Hi on the
part of the Russians, to be immediately followed up
by the opportune annexation of the great Trans-Cas-
pian region of the Turkomans — all giving the vast
Northern Power, in Central Asia (and, of course, in
other parts) an amount of political influence in the
East unexampled in our time. If Eussia is ever to be
predominant in Central Asia, it would, of course, be
suicidal to our Eastern Empire not to keep her clear
of approach towards India, S.W. China, and Burma.
No doubt, with our usual pluck, we shall always be
able to do this, but we must look more to Eastern

PEEFACE. XI

Asia ; and if only sufficient attention were now paid
to Upper Burma, we might check various ambi-
tious designs, while a change for the better might
be effected by us in that '^ superior country " — so
valuable and yet so little known at home to the
enlightened English statesman and the keen British
merchant — which attention would certainly, ere long,
bring us in both wealth and honour.

W. F. B. L.

London, July 1881.

P.S. — It was intended to publish this Httle work about the
middle of the year ; but deserted London, and the three
grand Questions on the tapis — the Egyptian, the Transvaal,
and the Irish — would have precluded many readers from
looking into the condition and prospects of Burma. Ad-
vantage has been taken of the delay to continue a miscel-
laneous record of events, with remarks thereon, from July
to October, which, as for the previous months, the writer
trusts wiU add to the utility and interest of his volume —
probably the conclusion of his pleasant labours on the
subject of Ashe Pyee, the Superior Country.

October, 1881.

CONTENTS

CHAPTEE I.

PAGE

The Burmese Qxjestion. — 1 1

CHAPTEE II.
The Burmese Question. — II 29

CHAPTEE III.

British and Upper Burma, and Western China : their

Concurrent Commercial Interests ... 67

CHAPTEE IV.

British and Upper Burma, and Western China —

{continued) 83

XIV CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE V.

PAGE

Du Halde on Trade with China : and how Eussia got

IN the Wedge lOB

CHAPTEE VI.
The Forests of Burma 119

CHAPTEE VII.
NATioNAii Character 125

CHAPTEE VIII.
The Shoe Question. — Court Etiquette in Burma . 133

CHAPTEE IX.
Gautama 187

SUPPLEMENTAKY CHAPTEE.
Sir Arthur Phayre on British Burma , . .150

CONTENTS. XT

MISCELLANEOUS EECOED.

PAGE

From February to October 1881 . . . .184

ADDENDA TO CHAPTEE IV.

Two Provinces of South- West China commercially

considered 240

NOTES 262

ASHE PIEE,

THE SUPERIOR COUNTRY,

CHAPTER I. ., ^'^i,

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 1.

Towards the end of J 879, the writer concluded his volume
on Our Burmese Wars and Relations with Burma, with
a brief account of events before and after the British
Resident's departure from Mandalay.* The Envoy having
** stalked a-vay,'' the Burmese Nero and his advisers at the
capital were left to the dictates of their own sweet will.
Massacres, burying alive, and every other iniquity associated
with the cruel " dark places of the earth " might be per-
petrated, and humane and generous Great Britain not be
one whit the wiser ; for, although the Resident was never
told one half of the deeds of dreadful note committed in
the Palace, still, while he remained at Mandalay, there was
always some information forthcoming to freeze the blood,
or make our hairs stand on end " like quills upon the fret-
ful porcupine."

Speedily an important opinion was entertained at Ran-
goon that, in the event of a campaign, it would be rendered

♦ Page 466.

2 ASHt PTEE.

easier if, on the declaration of hostilities, Nyoung-Yan
(or Nyoungyan) were publicly recognised as the British
nominee, and received with royal honours, while a pro-
clamation was issued placing him on the Burmese throne.
This was considered by some to be preferable to the
*' violent act"" of annexation, while others were firmly con-
vinced that we must in some fashion or other — to secure
.-the pe^acQ &n'ji*.aelvance the prosperity of British Burma —
.: reign supreme -at Mandal ay.*

' ' 'Early in December, a Burmese Embassy, which had
been for some time detained at Thayetmyo, awaiting per-
mission from the Indian authorities to proceed, received a
communication from the Viceroy, through the Chief Com-
missioner (Mr. Aitchison), recording the Viceroy's serious
dissatisfaction with " the position and treatment of our
Kesident lately at the Burmese Court." The Embassy had
"not come with authority to propose anything likely to be
acceptable." A reference to the Court for further instruc-
tions was advised ; otherwise the Ambassador could not be
received. t The Embassy remained at Thayetmyo awaiting
instructions from Mandalay. And so the author concluded
a somewhat " eventful liistory," at a most uncertain stage
of our relations with Burma. Time went on, and with
the disappearance of our Resident from the Burmese Court,
the " merry," but cruel and inexperienced monarch,
Theebau, and the really valuable land of the Golden Foot,
lost much of their interest. Attention in the East was
now almost wholly concentred on the wild bleak mountains

* Page 47 t I*age 476.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 3

and hills, the exteasive tracts of waste land, and here and
there the fertile plains and valleys of Afghanistan, destined
to cost England so much blood and so many millions
which might have been useful elsewhere.

Early in the New Year (18S0) it was expected that
papers regarding Theebau and our relations with Burma
were to be asked for in the House of Commons. But it
was evidently not a convenient season to grant them, for
none were forthcoming. The present writer had gladly
hoped that the production of such documents would draw
attention to the subject of Burmese affairs. In a despairing
mood he wrote to the coming Premier, who was soon to
■commence his second brilliant campaign in Midlothian,
even from one who with a rare method finds time for
everything, hardly expecting an answer. But an answer
did come, and very soon ; and the mustnu/i (purport) of it,
as we say in Hindustani, was an ardent wish " to under-
stand the painful question raised in Burma, on which but
little light seems to have been thrown by discussions in the
public press."* And again, with a generous solicitude
regarding an Anc(lo-IndiaQ author's work:—'' It cannot be
otherwise than a work of great interest and value at the
present moment^' ; also, it would not prove "insensibility
to the importance of the subject if he did not find an
early opporcunity of examining it.^'f Kecently, like some
far less great, yet able and energetic financiers, having
been at war with deficits in Indian and other budgets, of
course the Chancellor of the Exchequer could have found

* February 6th, 1880. t February 25th, 1880.

1 •

4 ASHfe PYEE.

but little time for the study of Burmese affairs ; but it may
be hoped that if more deficits are to be discovered, and
relief sought for, British economists and calculators will
turn their serious attention to the undeveloped resources of
Upper, and our own possession of British Burma, where,
in proportion to the population, the trade is more than
ten times greater than that of magnificent and populous
India !

The eastern country, " superior to all others," could
expect little attention during the unsettled state of Afghan-
istan. The elections naturally made the subject less than
a secondary consideration ; and there can be no doubt
that the English people are always touched most by what
is nearest to them, or, according to Dr. Johnson, we secure
the mind's attention to " domestic rather than Imperial
tragedies/'

It is passing strange, but nevertheless a fact, that,
towards the close of the nineteenth century, when education
has done so much for our country, there are millions of
intelligent people who, for the time, would look with
greater concern on the destruction of the Crystal Palace or
the Alhambra than they would exhibit if we lost India or
British Burma ! It will be long before Great Britain
really begins to appreciate the vast political and commercial
importance of her splendid Eastern Empire.

As time advanced, occasional great events were reported
from Mandalay. The King had long surrendered himself
to the Nats (spirits), and was more superstitious than ever.
Intelligence of Nat propitiation, cruel massncres, burying
alive, small-pox, and so forth, came from Rangoon. The

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 6

■steady^ wise old Woons (ministers) about the Court had
changed the King's warlike intentions towards the British.
It was necessary, therefore, to find some other kind of
excitement at the capital ; for lotteries, general gambling,
drinking, and the reported currency of lead for copper, had
done their work. April and May (1880) were probably
contemplative months at Mandalay ; but at the end
of the latter month, action in the shape of a rebelhoa
began to ring through the Burmese land.

Should the reader have the writer's last volume beside
him, at page 387 he will find it recorded that (in February
1879) the Nyoungyan and Nyoungoke Princes, brothers,
had found it expedient to flee with their families from the
Palace of Mandalay. They first took refuge in the British
Residency, but were, after a time, sent down to Rangoon,
and thence to Calcutta. The Nyoungyan Prince was the
favourite in the succession, and King Mengdon, Theebau's
father, had desired his election. However, young Theebau
got the throne, and became, with apparent ease, Lord of all
the White Elephants, of Golden Umbrellas, and of Earth
and Air. The chief hope of the brothers, it may be pre-
sumed, was now that Theebau's reign might be a short
and a merry one, which, judging from the chapter on the
Royal Progress,* seemed a contingency not far distant.
Nyoungoke at length proved himself to be more impatient
and ambitious than his elder brother, Nyoungyan. With a
small force of "raiders" (May 24, 1880) he suddenly
appeared near the British frontier, cut the telegraph

*^See Paper VI., " A Sketch of King Theebau's Progress," in Our
Burme$» Wars and Relations with Burma, page 374,

6 ashI: pyee.

between our boundary and Mandalay ; and so began what
seemed like a bold and determined endeavour to stir up a
rebellion against King Theebau. The insurgents, at first
successful, were repulsed at Minhla, some sixty miles from
the frontier, defended by Royal troops, guns, and a fort.
The Burmese local authorities became speedily alarmed at
the insurrection, and the Woon (governor) of Sillaymyo*
had (2oth) seized the Yujian^ British steamer, bound from
Mandalay to Rangoon. It was said that the silly Woon
pretended to believe that the English had invaded his
country. However that may be, the steamer was detained
for thirty-six hours.

A few days after this detention — in some respects as
great an insult as that which brought on the second
Burmese War — it was announced from Thayetmyo that
the insurgents were encamped near the boundary pillar^
and the Burmese Government had addressed a communica-
tion to the British Government, through the Burmese
Commissioners, who were still at Thayetmyo, to the effect
that the insurrection was only a sort of dacoit outbreak,t
and had '* no political significance." No notice, it was
asserted, had been taken of this despatch, because " all
friendly intercourse and show of courtesy" had ceased
between the representatives of the two Governments.
With reference to the Burmese Embassy — which seemed to
"be a political or diplomatic fixture — by the middle of May
the Chief Commissioner had written to the Ambassadors

* A village on the banks of the Irawadi, about twenty -five miles,
above Minhla.
f One of plunderers.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. /

at Thayetmyo that it was " necessary to postpone their
business for the present." The Embassy was requested to
return to Mandalay, at a time when the telegraph to that
station was interrupted. It was further announced from
Rangoon that the evidence was complete tliat certain con-
templated April sacrifices had been begun, and " were only
stopped on the representation of the Ambassadors that
the British Government would intervene." There was
constant quarrelling and intriguing among the Ministers
at Mandalay ; and, " in spite of Mr. Aitchison's letter,"
the Embassy still remained at Thayetmyo * The Embassy
had positively done nothing to improve our relations with
Theebau and Upper Burma ; but ** a variety of obviously
inadmissible and grotesquely incongruous propositions and
pretensions were put forward by the Burmese Government,"
and the various points already at issue between the two
Governments were steadily ignored The Envoy was told
that if he was not likely soon to have something more
satisfactory to suggest he should return ** as speedily as
convenient " He could not be got to specify the questions
which he was empowered to discuss ; and, after requesting
leave to move forward to Rangoon, he had been " reminded
that, according to all diplomatic usages, a substantial basis
and the definite points for the negotiation must be settled
before a personal discussion can begin."t But it would
be easier to square the circle than obtain such desirable
hypotheses ; and not even a Talleyrand or a Lord Palmer-
ston could have advantageously extracted a substantial

• Daily News. f Timet Correspondent.

8 ashI: pyee.

basis or a definite point from a wily Burmese diplomatist.
The Burmese idea of diplomacy in Mandalay at the present
time is a brief but comprehensive one. It simply amounts
to this : " Restore Pegu, with all her fine ports, to the
Golden Foot, and we will trade with you as much as you
like ; but there are certain time-honoured monopolies
which the King must have ; Free Trade must leave these
alone," concluding in the style of the old Burmese State
papers — This is Burman custom! And so the unchange-
able rulers of the Burman race, in an age of progress,
strive to obstruct the mighty advancing tide of human
thought and civilisation.

By the middle of June, it was thought that the rebellion
in Upper Burma had entirely collapsed ; but this was a
mistake, as followers of the adventurous Prince were spring-
ing up in several directions. There can be little doubt, if
Nyoungoke had played his cards well, and with some
military genius, he might have paid King Theebau a visit
at Mandalay during the month of June; and it was said,
probably with some truth, that had Nyoungyan appeared
on the scene, he " would have commanded a much larger
following than his brother." But he wisely remained in
Calcutta — like Abdul Rahman for Afghanistan — the
*' coming man " for Burma. The Burmese Envoy at Tha-
yetmyo had at last left. Strong hints, and, it was said,
threatened stoppage of allowances — the best hint of all — at
length sent him back to Mandalay, where, doubtless, he
was not received in a very gracious manner by his Sove-
reign. It was again well said that the future position of
the British Resident at Mandalay appeared to be " one

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 9

essential preliminary point for determination before the
question of diplomatic relations could be effectively entered
upon, and on that point lie had no satisfactory proposals
to make."

After some fruitless efforts on the part of the Prince, the
King's troops, headed by the only available Bandoola, the
Mingoon Woon, arrived on the frontier by steamer, entirely
defeated the insurgents, and gained a practically " blood-
less " victory. Prince Nyoungoke's was a rather inglorious
end ; he was captured by our police, lodged in the Circuit
house of Thayetmyo, and strongly guarded, previous to his
being sent back to Calcutta.

By the end of June, the rebellion had completely col-
lapsed. Nyoungoke was considered to have *' abused
the asylum afforded to him by us, in that he made our
frontier the base for his attack on Burma." He was sent
back under arrest to Calcutta, where he arrived early in
July. King Theebau was apparently becoming conciliatory,
and had been drilling very small bodies of troops at Man-
dalay.

It was telegraphed from Calcutta* that Mr. Bernard had
taken over the Chief Commissionership from Mr. Aitchison,
who had proceeded to Simla to take his seat in Council.
At a dinner given by the Rangoon community on the occa-
sion, in his speech Mr. Barnard gave no indication as to
the poUcy which would be pursued by the British Govern
ment regarding Burma ; but it would not be one of annexa-
tion. "To be, or not to be," with reference to Upper

* Times Correspondent, July 11th.

10 ASHfe PYEE.

Burma's independence, then, — or, more directly, in the case
of King Theehau, the French translator's rendering Vivre
ou mourir,* — was not yet " the question." And it was
highly necessary that " Afghan complications " should pass
quite away before the necessary amount of public interest
could be concentrated on Burmese affairs.

As to the present Golden Foot, it has been remarked to
the writer, by a learned and zealous Member of Parliament,
that he may not be so black as he has been painted ; but
at this stage, the remarks of an able and acute military
officer, who knows Upper and Lower Burma very well, may
be usefully cited : — " Until Upper Burma is blessed with a
ruler who will not consider it his only duty to sit in his
palace, and listen to accounts of his country, which are
only framed with a view to tickle his ear and flatter his
vanity, the countr}" will never improve ; and a policy of
interference may be forced upon us, however reluctant we
may be to enter upon it, for the protection of our trading
interests.'^

Thus, the Burmese is, in many respects, essentially a
commercial question, as, in fact, nearly all the questions
of lasting importance which come forth on Eastern Asia,
must invariably be. Of " a very fine country," the highly-
intelligent officer already quoted gives a most flourishing
description. To use the language of Richard Cobden, in
an essay written by him in 1836, upon Russia, Turkey, and
England, Upper Burma may be described with regard to-
its present backward condition commercially, as follows : —

fitre, ou pas 6tre ?

THE BUKMESE QUESTION. 11

** Nothing but a tyrannical despotism, at once sanguinary
and lawless, could have had the effect of repelling com-
merce from its noble water highways ; but, alas ! the thou-
sands of merchants who might have been tempted to
embark in profitable commercial speculations, would have
sought in vain for the rich freights of silk, cotton, wool,
cutch, earth-oil, and precious stones, which ought to have
awaited their advent. Such is the character of its rulers,
that no native capitalists even have been emboldened to
accumulate a store of merchandise to tempt the rapacity of
a dissolute set of kings."

Regarding the Burmese Embassy, King Theebau and
the British Government, the British public are much
indebted to a London Correspondent* at Rangoon, who
was most zealous in furnishing interesting information.
Before the departure of Naingangya Woondouk (in thia
case a diplomatic Secretary of State), the chief of the
Embassy, from Thayetmyo, it appeared that the Deputy
Commissioner (Colonel Davies) had informed that high
functionary, by order of the Viceroy, of Lord Lytton's wish
to leave his successor perfectly free to take up the subject
of a treaty with the King of Burma, or leave it alone.
During the settlement of the difficulty in Afghanistan —
unless in a case of actual invasion — it was not easy to find
leisure for the discussion of Burmese afi'airs ; and as there
did not seem to be any intention on the part of the
Embassy to come to a settlement, as had been suggested
six months before, nothing could be more reasonable than
the request, by letter, to leave for Mandalay. The letter ta

* Daily News, July 9th, 1880.

12 ASHt PYEE.

the Woondouk, wrote the above Correspondent towards the
middle of June, "is all the more unexpected, because the
general idea among the Burmans was that, with Mr. Glad-
stone in power, they would be able to conclude a treaty
immediately, and get all they asked for. The Mandalay
Gazette exulted over the return of the Liberals to power,
and said, * The new Premier, as a Knight of the Tsalw6,
will be reasonable, and not persist in the foolish and pre-
sumptuous course of his predecessor.'" To have been
reasonable where no reason existed, would have puzzled
€ven a cleverer and more shrewd statesman than the late
Premier. The Correspondent proceeds to give us some
interesting particulars regarding " the boast of heraldry,
the pomp of power," in Burma, to which I shall add a note,
also new : *' It may probably be news to most people in
England, that Mr. Gladstone is a Knight of the most
elephantine and ancient Burmese Order of Knighthood ; but
it is a fact nevertheless. The late King, Mengdon Meng,
sent him by the Kinwoon Mingyee the collar of the fifteen
strings, the second in rank under that of the princes of the
blood, who have twenty- one strings. The King himself
has twenty-four. The knights of premier rank glory in
eighteen." This badge of the order of nobility among the
Burmese consist of six classes.f From the highest autho-
rity, I shall now state as follows : — Some Orientalists and
others appear to entertain the idea that there is an order
styled *' The Golden Sun of Burma"; but there is no such
order. However, the King of Burma claims descent from

* For an account of the order of the Tsalwe (or Tsalway), see
General Fytche's Burma Fast and Present, vol i.p. 232 {note).

THE BURMESE QUESTION. IS

the Kshatrya Rajas of India of the '* solar race," and con-
fers titles, adopting the recipients into the " race of the
sun." Perhaps this is what is alluded to by those who
bring forward the "Golden Sun of Burma" to enlighten
the public.

After this brief digression, it may be well to return
to the Rangoon Correspondent, who reported at the
end of June that King Theebau was " making a great show
of being civil to us," giving some interesting particulars
regarding the Naingangya Woondouk. From these we
may learn the wholesome lesson how great men in the
East in office sometimes escape punishment, just as they
do occasionally in Russia, Turkey, and other European
countries. Such a vast amount of material for future
history is now furnished by Correspondents of the London
press, that it is folly to neglect what is thus presented to
us even in our own time. We have yet to learn that there
is more in a Woon or a Woondouk than *' is dreamt of in
our philosophy." The Naingangya " on his way up in the
ambassadorial steamer, took on board the Woon of Sillay-
myo, the official who so unceremoniously detained the mail
steamer Yunan. No doubt with a lively sense of what
might very possibly be soon his own fate, the Woondouk
had the over-energetic governor put in irons, and, on his
arrival in Mandalay, forthwith handed him over to the
Illot, with a vivid description of the wrath of the British
Government at the prisoner's proceedings." The Woon-
douk hoped that his own diplomatic failure might possibly
be overlooked. *' The Sillaymyo Woon's case occupied all
the attention of the Ministers. He was thrown into prison.

14 ashI: pyee.

there to await trial by the lUot Dau, the Supreme Court."
It was then thought that the Sillaymyo Woon would lie a
few weeks or days in confinement, escape, hang about Man
dalay for a few months, and finally get " a richer province
than that he lately governed."* Such, it was believed,
had been hitherto the way of punishing offenders against
the British Government ; but on this occasion it was the
Irawadi Flotilla Company — doubtless, for their own advan-
tage— they earnestly wished to conciliate; and so it was
arranged that the captains should not be summoned on
shore, but be visited by the governors (with a very small
unarmed escort) if thought necessary. Thus was the Court of
Mandalay beginning to assume the virtue of civility towards
the British, though, as yet, in reality they had it not ; and
such behaviour — not of yesterday's date — tends to render
the solution of the Burmese question by no means easy.

At present, then, the question is hardly one of annexa-
tion. It has become —and, perhaps, very properly — a
question of conciliation. If anything can be given better
than annexation, if any permanent plan can be brought
forward to avoid it, let us have it by all means ; and the
present writer fearlessly produces the following arguments
against the violent and distasteful measure, unless it be
strongly forced upon us. "Many men not conversant with
Burmese and Chinese frontier affairs have advocated the
annexation of Upper Burma, more, perhaps, from a com-
mercial standpoint than from sound policy ; but annexa-
tion from any point of view must be condemned.''' '* All
that is required in Upper Burma is a friendly and capable

* Baily News, July 26th, 1880.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 16

Government. Annexation is out of the question" *'We
have got quite as much as we want of Indo-Chinese soil."
In answer to the sentiments of a " commercial friend," one
of the warlike element (who considers annexation *' im-
possible ") thus remarks : — " I think Mr. Aitchison (the
Chief Commissioner), than whom there is not an abler
nor an honester servant of the Empress at present in her
Eastern dominions, has * no voice or stomach ' for annexa-
tion, but he would desire to see 'good government' intro-
duced into the King's dominions, peaceably if possible ; if
not, then by means of guns, sniders, and British soldiers
to use them." The mercantile gentleman — a gentleman to
the backbone — remarks : " The country is full of wealth
which only requires tke commonest form of just govern-
ment to tap and draw off. Now that all the mischief that
can be done to trade has been done, and troops are on the
spot, it is to be hoped that Government will make such
arrangements — be they in the form of annexation or of a
definite treaty with suitable guarantee for fulfilment — as
will put trade on a secure basis, and prevent the recurrence
of a similar commercial crisis." The stern and able repre-
sentative of the " warlike element " replies : " Although,
my merchant friend, trade is not everything, there appeared
to be no necessity to bring over those troops,* which, as
you say, have caused a paralysis of trade. No ; it would
have been wiser and more economical to have got them

* The present writer does not agree on this point ; he considers
that it was absolutely necessary to send over reinforcements at the
time (1879). See Omt Burmesrs Wars and Relations with Burnuiy
pp. 389, 393.

16 ASHE.PYEE.

ready as for employment elsewhere, and if King Thiba
(Theebau) showed any desire to fight with a view of reco-
vering lost territory, we might have allowed the * Golden
Foot' to be caught in the trap. But where divided counsels
prevail, then, my friend, many other things besides com-
merce become submerged." No wonder that our relations
with the King of Burma have recently been the subject of
much comment, both in the_English and Indian press; and,
in the words of the mercantile friend, "much has been
written to which the word misrepresentation might truth-
fully be applied." He is also of opinion that, " it is diffi-
cult in a few words to take up the subject of the political
situation, which, speaking from a commercial point of
view, is a very grave one at present." This writer — a
member of the Chamber of Commerce at Eangoon, who, in
May 1879, sent an article on the "State of Affairs in
Burma " to the Glasgow Herald, from which the foregoing
extracts are taken — is further of opinion that, "even now,
the only causes of depression of trade in the King's terri-
tory and Mandalay are imported from British territory,
where rumours of annexation are daily promulgated by
those whose interests lie in that direction; and with the
exception of merchants who have large stakes outstanding
in the country, directly and indirectly nearly everybody is
included in this category." Again, the shrewd merchant
makes the following very pithy remark, which, beyond all
question, has considerable truth in it : — " Upper Burma
occupies pretty much the relation to British Burma that a
lunatic asylum does to a contiguous private residence. It
is a constant object of dread to the merchant, and from a

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 17

political point of view, it is a standing menace to British
power and prestige in the East." With reference to
" rumours of annexation," and the apparent desire of the
mercantile community at Eangoon for war, I can bring
forward as an undeniable fact, that, when at Rangoon in
1864, I found the feeling to exist in a remarkable degree.
And knowing this, when about to re-publish my third paper
on Burma, on the progress of trade, and the prospects of
Pegu,* I should have considered that the ''Brief Review"
bore on the face of it proof that the information had been
culled from, if not all written by, one of the '* Merchant
Kings " of Rangoon, who, it was said, strove their best to
bring on a war in order to " settle their accounts " ; i,e,
balance their books as to goods sent on credit to Mandalay
and not paid for. Then such sentences in the paper as
** Rangoon is behindhand in facilities for repairing vessels,"
true in 1864, has not been so for some years past; yet I
left the remark without any corrective note.

But we must not leave our gifted friend of the " warlike
element " without deriving some more benefit from his com-
pany, which, it is to be hoped, will cause the British public
— above all, rising politicians and statesmen who would
seek a new and splendid ground for debate — to take more
interest than ever in the Burmese question.

This " military man," then, who, in his useful career,
resided for some little time under most favourable circum-
stances at Mandalay, under two very different Residents,
is evidently a man of very decided views. For instance, he

* Our Burmese Wars, d^c, p. 346.

18 ASni PYEE.

considers annexation as being "worse than the futile

attempts on that detestable Afghan frontier of Northern

India in this direction have hitherto proved to be." After

describing the magnificent valley of the Irawadi, he

arrives at the northern boundary line separating this valley

or Pegu, from the territory of Upper Burma. It is marked

by a line of stone pillars ; and standing on one of these,

not far from Meeaday, on the left bank of the river, the

great Pro-Consul, Lord Dalhousie, " the father of British

Burma," in 1853, declared, before a small yet brilliant

assembly of sunburnt men, " that Pegu had passed into

the possession of Queen Victoria and her heirs, and he

added : —

" I have heard some of my friends, whom I see around me, say,
■we now want but roads, canals, and railways, to make this a wealthy,
flourishing, populous, and prosperous province ; but I say, gentlemen,
for many years to come, no other highways will be required than
those already provided by bountiful Nature, to this province, viz. her
magnificent water highways, including this noble river, the Irawadi,
on whose banks we are now standing."*

There is perhaps no picture in British Eastern history
80 strikingly grand, so prophetic of the prosperity of a
newly-conquered country, as this. When, in some future
day, instead of Lower Burma, after defraying the cost
of every branch, furnishing only a million or two to the
Indian Imperial Exchequer, Burma shall furnish her ten
or more millions, the figure of Lord Dalhousie on the
boundary pillar, near Meeaday, as he reaches the spot, will
pass before the intelligent and inquiring traveller. The
Burmese question, long resolved into a prosperous settle -

• See also Our Burmese Wars, (&c., p. 309.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 19

ment, will then, like other important questions, in all pro-
bability be forgotten. ** This line of pillars," says our
military friend, " leaves the Arakan hills at a point called
* the ever visible peak,' and running east, passes the
Irawadi at fifty miles distant from its commencement, and
thence on, still eastwards, forty-three miles, to the Pegu
Yoma range of hills; thirty-three miles further on, it
crosses the Sittang, and finally the pillars lose themselves
in a desert of mountains thirteen miles further east." And
now, with the same apparent hatred of extension of fron-
tier as he displays towards Afghanistan, he says. This is
that misty easterly frontier which may lead us we know
not where, unless great caution is exercised.

Again, ** Telegraph lines extend over the Pegu province,
and it only remains to complete the line of the Irawadi
Railway eventually to Mandalay, and perhaps on to Bliamo,
when we have a reasonable being on the throne of Upper
Burma to deal with."

Truly, the " steady increase in the prosperity and pro-
gress of British Burma, since it came under our rule, can
hardly be equalled, and certainly not surpassed, by any
other province or portion of the Empire, in the East."
And from Burma British Indian financiers may take an
instructive lesson, that " Had India been less extravagantly
dealt with, perhaps it might have been financially
sound."

The comparison of Upper with Lower Burma is very
striking in every respect, and should be studied by all
who are anxious to understand the Burmese question. In
the former we have poverty, starvation, and barbarous

2 •

20 ASHfe PTEE.

oppression by the rulers, where the people are taught *' that
gambling is a virtue, and life and property of no particular
value"; in the latter, there is safety for all under a benefi-
cent Government — " peace, contentment, and happiness,
and such a steady and ever-increasing development of the
resources of the country as might make any wise ruler
anxious to imitate a system which has produced such
marvellous results."

Perhaps the most sanguine friends of British rule
throughout the world might do well to take a lesson from
the generally peaceful and contented state of Pegu, Lord
Dalhousie's pet annexation, over which the British flag
should wave as long as the sun shone in the heavens.* In
the middle of an eventful year, it was pleasant to read that
the subject of Burma was at length brought before the
House of Commons. Perilous, profitless Afghanistan,
with its " terrible war," to use the words of the Premier,
and ever- disturbing Ireland, appeared to have shut out all
chance of getting in a word edgeways regarding the Land
of the Golden Foot. It was not so always. Twenty-eight
years before, Burma had been considered a theme of no
small importance. The ablest statesman of both Houses
gave attention to the Burmese question. The Earl of
Derby, the "Rupert of Debate," and Lord Lansdowne,
thought it not unworthy of their eloquence in the House of
Lords ; and the greatest soldier of the age — or rather who,
like Shakespeare, lived not for an age, but for all time —
wrote his last great State paper on the Second Burmese
War.f

• Our Burmese Wars, ^c, p. 322. f IHd. p. 462.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 21

On the Ist of July 1880—

•• Mr. Bryce asked the Secretary of State, for India what was the
present state of diplomatic relations between the Government of
India and the King of Burma ; and whether having regard to the
conciliatory disposition evinced for some months past by the King of
Burma, Her Majesty's Government would consider the propriety
of directing the British Envoy to return to Mandalay.

" The Marquis of Hartington was understood to say that, in
consequence of the attitude of the Government of Burma to the
British residents, and other causes, the relations of the Indian
Government to the Government of Burma last year were extremely
strained, our representative was recalled, and Colonel H. Browne was
immediately despatched to succeed him. But, in consequence of the
difficulty of transacting business, that gentleman was also recalled,
and an assistant-resident appointed in his place. The latter found
his position at Mandalay so precarious that it was impossible for him
to remain any longer without danger to his own life and that of his
assistants, and he also was directed to leave. Demands for redress
had been addressed to the Government of Burma, but the result was
not yet known. The Indian Government would consider the
propriety of appointing a British resident as soon as certain stipula-
tions, which it was considered right and necessary to insist upon,
with regard to the treatment of the mission should be accepted. A
special mission had been sent by the King of Burma to the frontier ;
but, although it was said to have full powers, it appeared that the
Envoy had not power, or had not been able to assent to the
preliminary conditions which the Indian Government considered
indispensable to the establishment of a British mission at Mandalay.
The whole question of our relations with Burma was now under the
consideration of the Government of India, and no doubt the Viceroy
would be greatly assisted by the advice of a gentleman who had
lately been appointed a provisional member of the Council of the
Governor-General. ' '

So, then, when we are done with Afghanistan, there is
a good chance of Burma's becoming an exciting and, as it
must ever be, an interesting theme ; the more so, in the
€vent of a war between Russia and China, should the
Russian bear be successful against the " heathen Chinee,"
find take it into his head some day that, as no one seems to

22 ASH^ PYEE.

care very much about developing the resources of Western
China — particularly south-west Chinese Yunnan and Sze
Chuen — he may as well fulfil a portion of the great Peter's
universal object, and occupy these most valuable lands.
Of course, such a consummation is far from devoutly to be
wished; but should, by any chance, Russian territory
ever border on Upper Burma, the Golden Foot, whoever
he may be, if we have not honourably secured either him
or his country before, will certainly have good cause to
shake in his shoes.

This forces from the writer another question : Should
China be eventually successful over all her enemies, were
Russia to fall back, would the Flowery Land become a
dangerous rival to British supremacy in India ? Material
for a tolerable army could be found out of a population of
three or four hundred millions. Meanwhile, let us think
only of the Burmese question, and the prospects of trade
with south-western China. For the speedy settlement of
the former, let us now introduce some real friend of Burma
who has drawn up some questions on the subject, and
wishes the best answers given to them, and in the directest
and shortest manner procurable. The most important of
them may be the following : —

Question, The loss of the sea- ports being so sorely felt
by the Golden Foot, is there no way of our extending the
benefit of these ports to the King; he, on his part, bind-
ing himself to assist us in securing a free right-of-way to
western China, and to do all in his power to further the
progress of commerce between Upper Burma and Pegu ?
And what monopolies of his own could he best give up for

THE BUKMESE QUESTION. 23

such benefits ? Could he not be liberal to ug in the way
of petroleum, teak, precious stones, &c. ?

Answer. When we give up the monopoly of opium,
perhaps the King of Burma may give up petroleum, teak,
and precious stones.

Teak ! why ive make a monopoly of teak.* For the
rest, see our existing treaties. Again, what has puzzled
many British statesman more than any other aspect of the
position : —

Question. The Shoe Question being held of such para-
mount importance by the high Burmese officials, &c., could
no middle course be taken to satisfy Burmese regal or
courtly vanity ?

Answer. There is no middle course.

In the Shoe Questionf we at least have a show of reason
in the Burman, who, after all, in such matters, is not so
very much unlike ourselves ; and to the Golden Foot
Pope might, perhaps, have applied his famous line —
" In pride, in reasoning pride, the error lies."

As to our giving up the opium monopoly in India, such
has been ably proved, in the present crippled state of
Indian finance, to be utterly impossible ; and so, in the
present state of Burmese civilisation, for a king or his
ministers to give in on the Shoe Question, appears to be
equally impossible. Thus difficulty after difficulty enters
into the question of our relations with Upper Burma.
If there is to be a new treaty, and a Resident again at Man-
dalay, much of the difficulty will disappear if we strictly

* See Note I., "Eoyal Monopolies."
t Our Burmese Wars, dtc, pp. 395, 406.

24 ashI: pyee.

observe the rule of honesty in all our dealings. And we
must never for a moment allow the value of our prestige
to go down in British and Upper Burma, but keep up our
dignity — even if we cannot settle the Shoe Question — in
every possible way. As to keeping up our dignity in the
capital, there is a good story told of that highly eminent

^ ' political officer, the present Sir Arthur Phayre. In Burma
eight golden umbrellas are carried over the royal or king's

s^ letter; and when the Burmese authorities would not

i permit the umbrella to be carried over the Governor-

General's letter, according to custom. Major Phayre, our

A^^ Envoy to Burma in 1855, insisted upon the Union Jack being

>J Bzaifid^^^r it on its way from the Residency to the

'^ Palace.* Even used in such a novel fashion, the glorious

old rag had more dignity about it than a whole kingdom

of golden and white umbrellas. It may here be stated

that white umbrellas are the emblems of royalty in Upper

Burma, and none but royal personages can have these

carried before them. Thus, in East and West alike, are

kings and grandees to be found, " pleased with a rattle,

tickled with a straw ! " Monopoly and vanity, then, may

be considered leading features in a Burman monarch's

character ; and with regard to the former, but chiefly

with reference to our " Concurrent Commercial Interests,"

* See a very pleasing Note of the Bay, on " Burmese Umbrellas,' *
in the Globe, June 18th, 1880. Eight days later, appeared another
amusing article on " Tipsy Kings of Burma." It should have been
remarked in this paper, at the time, that when Prince Nyoungoke
came over, King Theebau, it was reported, commenced a heavy
drinking bout in the palace ; this love of the *' liquid ruby," or the
white spirit, adding difficulties to the Burmese Question.

THE BUBMESE QUESTION. 25

I shall now cite a few valuable remarks as bearing in
no small degree on a satisfactory settlement of the Bur-
mese question.

The difficulties placed in the path of traders from China
through Burma to the sea by the late King, Mengdoo
Meng, in the shape of ruinous duties, were no doubt of a
serious character. *' He probably acted thus through feel-
ings of jealousy and dislike of the English and other
' KuUa ' settlers in his own territory, but more especially
to those of British Burma, by means of whom his country
had been deprived of many of its ablest-bodied sons, who
resorted in considerable numbers to British territory. . . .
His policy was a very ruinous one, as is proved by the
present impoverished state of his country, and this he
eventually well knew before the Angel of Death ran him in.
General Sir A. Phayre, when Chief Commissioner of
British Burma in 1863, wrote on this subject of ruinous
duties and the King's monopolies in trade, as follows : —
'This system is no doubt very pernicious, but foreign
interference may do more harm than good. We must
trust in time to let the King learn the advantage of giving
the industry of the people free scope.' Time, however,
passed away, and on the 4th October 1878, when Mengdon
Meng was officially reported to have passed into the
Buddhist future state called Nirbana " (Neibban or Nir-
vana is the " eternal city "), " this pernicious system was
in as full swing as it was in April 1863. There is really
no other exit for the Chinese trade from Sze-Chuen and
Yunnan than by the route going through Bhamo, past
Mandalay, and so on down to Rangoon, and the countries

26 ash6 pteb.

beyond the Indian Ocean. By the stoppage of this route,
Bhamo has become a place of but little importance as
regards trade, and it is a miserable sight to see those five
steamers of the Irawadi Flotilla Company, running to
and fro between Kangoon, Mandalay, and Bhamo, almost
empty. The trade may yet, however, ere long revive,
under happier auspices, and Bhamo (in an extensive wild
and beautiful province, governed by a Woon, lit. civil
governor) may become, what it undoubtedly can become, a
wealthy and prosperous centre of trade." And when we
consider that Rangoon, as I have frequently styled it, the
future Liverpool or Glasgow of Chin-India, has been
brought within about fifty-six hours of Calcutta by steam,
and quite next door to it by telegraph, the British mer-
chant— should he honour the latter portion of the follow-
ing sketch with a perusal — will doubtless appreciate the
vast importance of opening up trade with south-western or
it may be other parts of China. Unless this be well and
amply provided for, there can be no satisfactory solution
of the Burmese question. South-western China penetrates
into every cranny of it ; and whoever states to the contrary
is ignorant of the real facts of the case. We have deprived
the Golden Foot of the prosperous tail (the ports) ;* so of
course he is naturally more than ever bent on keeping the
undeveloped head. If this part of the question be well
managed, its entire solution will not be far distant ; if
neglected, it will be impossible.

In his humble efforts to publish commercial as well as

* See also Our Burmese Wars, d^c, pp. 386, 391.

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 27

military information concerning Burma, the writer, in
addition to the kind and encouraging remarks of the
London press, has been honoured with some observations
by a zealous and learned Member of the House of
Commons, which may not be out of place here, as they
represent a large section of public opinion on the subject :
'* So far as I can judge with my limited knowledge, the
capabilities of Burma are all that you say, though I am
not sure that I can follow you if you desire it (Upper
Burma) to be annexed to our already almost too vast Indian
dominion. With what you put so clearly and forcibly
regarding the desirability of opening up trade with China,
I entirely agree ; understanding that you desire to see
this effected by peaceful means. What I hear privately
regarding the present King of Burma leads me to believe
that he is not so black as he has been painted by some of
the newspaper correspondents at Rangoon." Strange
enough, the latter opinion concerning King Theebau is
similar to that entertained by the gallant and able member
of the ** warlike element," to whom the present writer is so
much indebted for his valuable " Notes " on Upper and
Lower Burma. At Mandalay (June 1879), this graphic
writer was joined by a German gentleman, who was
making a tour of the world, and was very anxious to see
King Thibo (Theebau). An order was procured for an
interview through the Kinwoon Mengyee, or Prime
Minister ; and the " amusing " traveller's curiosity was
fully gratified, "One thing observed by my friend was
that the young King did not present the slightest appear-
ance of having indulged in the debasing habit of intoxica-

28 ASHi PYEE.

tion, with which he has been so freely credited. If this
was true, surely a youth, who certainly never in his father's
lifetime tasted a drop of any intoxicating liquor, suddenly
embarking on such a course, drinking as some said nearly
a bottle of gin at a sitting, would have shown some signs
of its effects. My friend positively asserted that no
such signs could be noticed, that he seemed a quiet and
rather timid youth, not yet quite accustomed to his exalted
position. Mr. Archibald Forbes in February last (1879),
said the same thing about Theebau as this travelling
German gentleman." Again, " It is of course impossible
to say with any certainty whether or not this young king
is a drunkard, and is responsible for the cruel deaths of
his relatives." Let us, then, be kind and liberal, in a
liberal age, under a Liberal Government, and give the
Golden Foot, King Theebau, the full benefit of the doubt,
on the fair understauding that he gives his powerful aid
in settling for Great Britain and Burma this what other-
wise promises to be an eternal Burmese question.

London, August 2, 1880.

29

CHAPTEE II.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. — II.

Upwards of three months had elapsed since the writer
penned the foregoing remarks, and the idea became forced
on him that this is what may he styled an Interrogative
Age, as well as an Age of Various Local Interest. Ques-
tions and Situations have been so rapidly succeeding each
other, even in a quarter of a year, that one is sometimes
disposed to doubt if any comparison can be made between
the famous ages of the ancient Hindus and Greeks, and
those through which we have passed, till, sending the Golden,
Silver (the Brazen must be allowed to remain), and Iron
ages adrift, we seem to cling, like the former remarkable
people, to a present "Evil Age,"*^ waiting for reform
everywhere, to be brought about by some Liberal Vishnu
in esse, who, as the ninth incarnation (Kalki), seated on
his white horse, with a drawn scimitar in his hand, is yet
to come and renovate creation with an era of purity.
Question so rapidly succeeds question, that it is diflBcult
to conceive where this looked-for universal reformer is

30 ASHfe PYEE.

likely to appear first; whether in Afghanistan or Burma in
Asia, or in Turkey, England, or Ireland in Europe. He
will have to be a greater than even Burke, Fox, Earl
Eussell, or Mr. Gladstone. The numerous questions and
situations whicli have been thrust on our governing states-
men and the public during the last three or four months
have been perfectly overwhelming, the larger swallowing up
the minor — or rather what only seem to be the larger taking
the chief place in public interest — till at length we seem to
long for the present "Evil Age''' (Kali Yug) to be swept
away, to be succeeded by one far happier and better. That
many dark places of the earth are almost as full of cruelty
as ever is hardly to be denied by close observers of the
world's progress ; and, perhaps, there is no corner of the
earth where this is more apparent than in the shattered
independent kingdom of Upper Burma, to which far too
little attention has recently been given, although in com-
mercial and military strategic importance — especially in
the case of our Eastern Empire — it far transcends many
of those regions which, in the shape of questions, have
been so lavishly thrust on our notice. It is not enough to
simply call attention to the undisputed fact that Burma is
a great self- producing country for Great Britain — " a
country destined ere long to be more important than any
other in Asia" — Ashe Pyee, the Eastern country, or
that "superior to all others";* but strong and various
argument should be used to teach every true-born Briton
what a valuable possession he lias in British Burma, and

* Our Burmese Wars, dc, p. 17.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 31

how that value may be increased by forsaking useless and
profitless regions, where more blood and treasure have
recently been lost, and turning a larger share of attention
to one of the fairest and productive regions on earth.

Various Governments — especially the direct Govern-
ments of India — are by experienced judges considered
in some measure to blame for the present wretched
state of Upper Burma, and much of the anxiety and rest-
lessness in Lower or British adjacent territory.

A liberal remedy is now sought ; and this makes the
Burmese — although there is much of a seeming inertia
hovering around it — not less politically important, and
intrinsically far more so, than the Turkish, the Greek,
the Montenegrin, the Afghan, or the Persian question.
What shall we do for Afghanistan ?— the war in which
country Lord Northbrook, in his recent masterly and
interesting address on India,^ trusted was at an end ;
and where, in the more recent words of our ever- eloquent
Premier, *' a more hopeful condition has been restored," f —
is now bound to give way to the mighty, sensible, and
practical question, What shall we do for our valuable Chin-
Indian next-door neighbour. Upper Burma ? At length
it has been well and emphatically said of Afghanistan :
'* We have had enough of it ; the British nation is sick of
the name of that turbulent country." And no wonder. To
say nothing of the treachery and bloodshed our ever-brave
troops have borne witness to, the late wars in that region
have cost us a few millions more than the terribly expen-

* October 29tli, as President of the Midland Institute, Birmingham,
t Banquet Speech, Lord Mayor's Day, 9th November, 1880.

32 ASHf: PYEB.

sive First and the moderately expensive Second Burmese
Wars put together.* And what have we gained ? Nothing.
Positively worse than nothing ; except further proof of the
well-known fact that our forces in the East, European
and Native, can heat, if properly commanded, any numher
of disciplined or undisciplined troops, under any circum-
stances, in any part of Asia.

What Mr. Gladstone has styled " the great Indian
Empire of the Queen, that large, important, indispensable
part of the obligations of the Imperial Government,"
demands from Great Britain the most earnest and speedy
attention to Burma, locally, financially, and commercially,
which no other British possession at present has the same
right to claim.

Musing over the Burmese question in its various bear-
ings, my attention was turned to a remarkable pamphlet
written in January 1826, a month before the conclusion of
the First Burmese War, and the treaty of peace at Yan-
daboo. The author is Colonel Stewart, formerly Aide-de-
Camp to Earl Minto and Marquis of Hastings, Governors-
General of India. The title is Some Consideratio?is on
the Policy of the Government of India, more especially
with reference to the Invasion of Burmah ; and the well-
chosen motto for those who write or debate on Indian
affairs, from Tacitus : " Non tamen sine usu fuerit intros-
picere ilia primo aspectu levia, ex quis magnarum ssepe
rerum motus oriuntur." Alluding to the "monstrous
incongruities" united in the government of our East India

* See Our Burmese Wars, dtc, pp. 79, 80, 288, and 464. See also
Note Y. " Kelative Cost of the Afghan and Burmese Wars."

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 33

provinces, the writer answers the question how they are
united : — "hy the only means by which such a union was
possible — by the influence of an army of a hundred and
■sixty thousand men." And these incongruities extended
not only through the government, but through the whole
frame of society. The difficulty — though not impossibility
— of effecting a direct and strong union between British
and Upper Burma, and say also the iShan States, is almost
foreshadowed by Warren Hastings in his famous memoir
relative to the state of India. " I fear," says Mr.
Hastings, "I fear, I say, that the sovereignty will be
found a burden instead of a benefit, a heavy clog rather
than a precious gem, to its present possessors. I mean,
unless the whole territory in that quarter be rounded and
made a uniform compact body by one grand and systematic
arrangement, such an arrangement as will do away with all
the mischiefs, doubts and inconveniences, both to the
governor and to the governed, arising from . . . the inform-
ality and invalidity of all engagements in so divided and
unsettled a state of society, and from the unavoidable
anarchy and confusion of different laws, religions, and pre-
judices, civil and political, all jumbled together in one
unnatural and discordant mass." So far as India is con-
cerned, vast strides of improvement have undoubtedly been
made in these and similar matters since the first Governor-
General wrote, or during the last century of our rule; but
with every conquest we make they re-commence in all
their pristine strength, as would be found if we had such
turbulent countries as Afghanistan and Upper Burma (with
he adjacent territory) entirely at our feet to-morrow. No

3

34 ASHJE PYEE.

nation has been a victim to " the force of circumstances,"^
since the world began, like our own.

We have launched a strong political school in the East,
and it would appear that we must ever go on teaching if
we would hope to hold our position. As it might be said,
England is the universal schoolmaster, ever ploughing and
sowing as she goes or plods along, with the old motto,
" Vires acquirit eundo." But during our progress, it is
consolatory to know that we are frequently vested with the
power of selection. Afghanistan has been weighed in
the balances, and sadly found wanting. The Afghan ques-
tion should be made at once to give way to the far easier
and infinitely more valuable one of the Burman, or, What
should we now do for Northern or Upper Burma ? And
whatever mode of action may take place —

"If 'twere done,
Then 'twere well it were done quickly."

Standing firmly on the defensive, and dismissing the
Russian bugbear for ever, England can very well afford to
drop Afghanistan with all the glory it has won us, and the
losses and the tears it has caused, and leave the Afghans
to make peace among themselves ; and at any time it is
possible, to use the words of an able and humorous
military writer, "the drama of the Kilkenny cats may have
begun in Cabul '* ; but it is very different with Upper
Burma. We cannot in any way afford to leave it quite
alone. We have cut the apple in half, keeping by far
the best half for ourselves; and now the other half seems
destined to come into our hands.

Colonel Stewart remarks, on the subject of the first

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 85

invasion of Burma : " The only event that can be quoted,
with any appearance of similarity, as a precedent, is the
invasion of Nepaul, during the administration of the Marquis
of Hastings. The cases were the same, in so far as little
additional revenue was to be loked for from cessions of
territory; but in all other respects, the contrast between
the circumstances is remarkable.'' The writer compares
the two countries with respect to India, but such a com-
parison would not hold good at the present time ; for what
good as a barrier Nepaul was then, and is now, may be
equalled, if not surpassed, by the splendid barrier and
strategic base of operations afforded by Lower, and which
would be mightily increased if we possessed, or had
supreme influence over, Upper Burma.

When the Government of India was forced into a war
with Nepaul, as we might any day be with the present
arrogant and cruel Golden Foot — a plan that promised
and deserved complete success was presented ; and here
were *' wise and legitimate objects to look to as the fruit
of victory." It was never the intention of Lord Hastings
to destroy the independence of Nepaul as a separate king-
dom. He would not remove such a valuable barrier
interposed between the British possessions and the depen-
dencies of China ; but sufficient was done to cut the claws
of Nepaul, and prevent much future trouble during our
great march on the road to Empire. Colonel Stewart
writes of the narrow strip of Nepaul, hemmed in along
with us by the same impassable rampart, with an immense
frontier in its front, and no depth; and of Burma as a
country lying beyond the natural limits of India, touching

8 *

36 ASH^ PYEE.

on our possessions but for a small portion of its length,
and that on a strong natural frontier, and opening behind
with vast regions ; *' with great rivers, presenting so many
successive lines of defence, and connecting ifself, by
neighbourhood, with many powerful kingdoms " When
the shrewd and gallant Colonel wrote we did not even
possess Arakan and Tenasserim — although we had con-
quered them — far less Pegu, our present " princess among
the provinces," which Sir Arthur Phayre created and left
on the sure road to progress and wealth, after, wizard-
like, turning the swamps of Arakan into the granary of the
Bay.* Stewart protested against the process of aggrandise-
ment— yet acquiring power that we may be safe — strongly
advocating the fixed principles held by many able states-
men of the present day, against firing a shot beyond the
confines of India, except in the pursuit of an aggressor.
Surely the story of our whole Eastern Empire is a strange
one ; and we still continue to forget that we are creatures
of circumstances. We were obliged to fire " a shot,'' and
a good mauv, when the terrible Sikh invasion of British
India took place (1845-46) ; the annexation of the Punjab
(1849) eventually ensued; and he who, through thePunjab,
became the " Saviour of India " during the mutiny (1857)1
really founded the policy, now^ again (November 1880) to
be adopted — to think not of conquest, but defence only,
and, with the great Indian chiefs, concentrate all attention
on "internal progress." At the commencement of his

• See the Author's Pegu, p. 146.

t The annexation of Pegu was also of great use during the Mutiny.
See Our Burmese Wars, <&c.. Preface.

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 37

reign, the Marquis of Ripon has declared his intention of
** resuming the policy of Lord Lawrence." More rounding
off, however, will yet have to take place before this wise
policy can be adopted in extenso. We are not yet even
near " the beginning of the end ! " And yet the fact is
undeniable, that there is wherewithal in India to satisfy
the highest ambition. But there is a secret impelling
power which defies such prudence.

Upper Burma, then, — and there may be some other
" undiscovered country" — is in a strait betwixt two modes
of action on our part : one to invade and annex, which is
quite repugnant to the new policy ; the other to rectify,
aid the right, and check the wrong, which we shall ever
find it difficult lo do, especially in some portions of Chin-
India. What Colonel Stewart wrote at the beginning of
1826 is as true now as then ; and in an age when military
glory is almost considered of secondary importance to
financial considerations, it may be well to cite his remark : —
"It seems to be admitted on all sides that accessions of
territory in that direction" (Burma) "will be unproduc-
tive of any proportionate revenue, and they will most
infallibly entail expense." And yet fifty years later we
find British Burma — to say nothing of revenue furnished
to the Imperial Exchequer — with exports and imports
amounting to I3j millions sterling, more than four times
the population, which proportion, if it existed in India,
would make the commerce of our greatest and most
splendid dependency ten times greater than it is* The

* See Our Burmese Wars, dtc, pp. 352-353.

38 ASHE PYEE.

dismemberment hitherto of the fairest portion of the old
Burmese Empire, it must be candidly confessed, we have
managed admirably. In fact commerce in Burma, even
now, lookmg to a bright future, wears her " rostral crown "
rejoicing.

A peculiarity surrounds the Burmese question which
makes it differ entirely from most European and Oriental
questions. In its solution England is almost alone
interested. As what may be styled an isolated question,
therefore, and also possessing a greater right to deal with
it than any other powers — from the simple fact of our
already possessing the better half of the golden apple —
no power is able to compete with us in the variety of argu-
ments elicited by — what shall we do for Upper Burma ?
We need not at present fear China. Russia will keep her
employed in watching that aggressive yet wonderful power
for years to come. Strange enough it was recently stated
by high authority that the "new peril for India" was
China, aided by Nepaul, and not Russia, which would,
therefore, in her turn, cause the great northern power to
keep strict watch over the erratic doings of China ! What
a strange and unexpected event it would be for the future
historian to record that the Chinese had threatened English
supremacy in India ! The old Russian bugbear of Afghan-
istan will then, perhaps, like Islam, have " withered away *' ;
King Theebau will have been long gathered to his fathers ;
Upper Burma will be entirely ours ; and what was a sad
wilderness under his rule will, under ours, rejoice and
blossom like the noble Amherstia ''' and the Rose. It may
* See Our Burmese Wars, <&c.. p. 309.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 39

also be predicted that, unlike barren and turbulent
Afghanistan, should we leave it to its fate, it will, from our
strategical position of Pegu, cause us far less anxiety, and
always afford the hope of profit, honour and advantage,
more than any other Eastern country not actually our own.
It may now be well to record briefly, as materials for
future history, the principal events which occurred in Upper
Burma during a period of three or four months, after the
•discomfiture of Prince Nyoungoke, who headed the
rebellion, about the middle of the year, against King
Theebau, which events may tend to throw some light on
the present aspect of the Burmese question. In truth,
such events form a strange medley, affording sufficient food
for a sensation drama, to which we have too long passively
been spectators. There could be no doubt whatever that
things had nearly come to the worst in Upper Burma.
Our sage. Bacon, almost seemed to have the present state
of the land of the Golden Foot in his eye when he wrote :
"Time is the greatest innovator; and if time of course
alters things to the worst, and wisdom and counsel shall
not alter them to the better, what shall be the end ? " *
While Lord Hartington was giving his countrymen " an
important and satisfactory statement (August 9th) about
the evacuation of Cabul," some interesting items of inform-
ation, from " Our Correspondent at Eangoon,'' f were
published in London. What would England do without
the services of such intelligent and ubiquitous Correspon-
dents ? Strange, there have been so many new orders of
knighthood in late years, and not one to the Knights of the
* Essays. t Daily News, August 10th, 1880.

40 ASHfe PYEE.

Press ! Only a journalistic K.P. would run the risk of
being mistaken for a Knight of St. Patrick ! Anyway^
there should be an Order of Merit especially for them,
admitting all who have been distinguished by graphic
description and daring adventure.* At Rangoon, the politi-^
cal atmosphere had cleared again, and the ardent Rangoon
annexationists were contented to bide their time. Nyoun-
goke had been defeated ; and there were no more signs of
opposition to Theebau. When the rebellion broke out, the
King was becoming more and more unpopular, — a most
dangerous state for a Burmese monarch, — and everything^
seemed in Prince Nyoungoke's favour, except that he '* did
not bear a good name among the Upper Burmans. They
said he hated his brother — ^a very grave sign among the
Buddhists; they said he loved money — a very common failing
all the world over ; finally, they declared they did not
believe he would be any better than Theebau — about as
crushing an accusation as could be brought against any-
body ; but all the time they allowed that he was brave ; in
fact, they said that was the only good quality the Prince
had " But what use is bravery in a Burman or any other
military commander, without the knack of looking ahead
and knowing something at least of strategy? It only makes
matters worse ; and in intrinsic value, without the above
qualifications, is nearly as bad as running away — which th&
Prince certainly did from the Royal troops. There seemed
little chance of Nyoungoke raising another rebelHon.

The same Correspondent at Rangoon further wrote, about

* The far-famed Correspondent at Merv should be among the first
to receive the order. (September 1881.)

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 41

this time, regarding the English church at Mandalay^
alluded to in my larger work,* that King Theebau had
caused it to be published that since the English priests
"were afraid to resume charge of their church in Mandalay,
he meditated presenting it to " the Baptists, or the Eoman
Catholics, or whatever sect would lake it." Perhaps it
entered the writer's mind that such a vacant church would
form a fitting temple for the Ritualistic ones who came
under the wrath of the Court of Arches; and at Mandalay
they might carry out the ceremonies of their ornate religion
unmolested, with the chance of a reformed Theebau — after
studying " Churchism," and thinking how little of genuine
Christianity was in it all — becoming one of the congre-
gation ! It should be mentioned that it was not probable
that either the Baptists or the Romanists would accept His
Majesty's offer ; so the church is likely to remain vacant
till we, or the Shans, take Mandalay, or till the appearance
of a new British Resident there.

Numerous promotions of '* intelligent and progressive
men,'' had now taken place at the capital of Upper Burma,^
owing to the rebel defeat. The concluding report on the
operations of the Naga Field Force (by General Nation),
had also been published ; so we now had, about the same
time (middle of July), praise distributed by our Government
to the officers and troops engaged against the unruly Nagas,^
and promotions by King Theebau for the repulse of the
adventurous Nyoungoke.

August 1880, will ever be an important epoch in Burmese
annals, especially to Burmese astrologers, for during this
* Our Burmese Wars, <^c., p. 471.

42 ASHE PYEE.

month took place a serious revolt of the Shan States, and a
daring attempt on the life of King Theehau. From what
has been said elsewhere, of course such striking events
were to be expected at any time ; and had success crowned
both endeavours, there is no saying what might have hap-
pened in Upper Burma. A glorious future for a fine yet
undeveloped country would probably have now begun, and
the reign of uncertainty and terror would have been closed
for ever. In the united (if such be possible) action of the
Shan States, lies an important key to the whole Burmese
question. And this is a fact that Indian statesmen would
do well to bear in mind. With the numerous Shan tribes
well disposed towards us, and say the Nyoungyan Prince
as our steady ally on the throne of the Golden Foot, what
a splendid barrier we could have to our possessions in
Eastern Asia ! But it would be useless to maintain a good
monarch on the throne, or even to annex, if we did not
conciliate the Shans. They are, I repeat, the sine qua non
of our policy in Chin-India. I have frequently referred to
this remarkable people in my other work, and too much at-
tention cannot be paid to their doings and progress. They
may yet form the nucleus of a mighty commerce, which
will make the English merchant's heart rejoice, and all of us
to wonder how we had so long and foolishly neglected them.*
Were thorough rebellion at any time to break out in
Upper Burma, we could not " shunt " the Shan question.
They must be either for us or against us ; and two or three

* See Our Burmese Wars, dc, pp. 364, 366, 394,— Tribes, Shan
Producing Countries, &c. Also Lord Dalhousie on the Shans and
HiU People, pp. 289-290.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 43

millions of such a brave people might give us some trouble,
especially — which in these days is too likely — if our hands
were tied in other quarters. It is the tribes inhabiting in
and around the old Burman Empire which make the
Burmese question a difficult problem to solve to the satis-
faction of all parties.

Some of the Shan tribes, then, rose against King Theebau
nearly two months after Prince Nyoungoke's failure. It
was reported in Rangoon, and, of course, fully believed in
the bazaar, that the Shans had surrounded and besieged
Mandalay, and that Theebau's last days had come. But
three only of the Tsawbw'as (as tlie chiefs are called), had
risen — two of them, the heads of theTheinnee and Thonhsay
clans, the most powerful of all.

The Shan chiefs, as was to be expected, acted quite
independently of each other. They seem in the present
case to have simply raised their standards, and commenced
marching on Mandalay, burning and slaughtering all along
their route. The King's troops missed them at first, and,
falling upon the Thonhsay chief's village, sacked and
burned it. *' The enraged Tsawbwa, however, exacted
summary vengeance. Within a day or two he fell upon
the Royalists, cut them up at the first onslaught, and
spent the rest of the day hunting them down. The hot-
tempered old Tswabwa of Theinnee, whose daughter was
married to one of the princes, and massacred along with
her husband last year," * now also fully enjoyed the intense
sweetness of revenge.

* Correspondent of the Daily News. See also Our Burmese Wars, (&c.
pp. 397-398, " King Theebau's Progress."

44 ASH^ PYEE.

But, after all, there was no actual beleaguering of
Mandalay. If, however, the town outside the walls had
been taken, Theebau would almost certainly have been put
to death. The able correspondent remarks significantly
on this occasion : — " 'j'he Burmese have an ancient custom
that way with their Sovereigns, and it will not be difficult
to find plenty of men ready to put an end to the blood-
stained life.'"' At the end of August 1880, it was com-
municated from Eangoon that there might be more political
meaning in the revolt of the Shans than was at first sup-
posed. The Shan Tsawbwa — probably the old and
naturally irate Theinnee — with some knowledge of the art
of war, had come to the conclusion that it was better not
yet to attack the royal city ; " for they forthwith spread
themselves all over the country to the north of Mandalay,
burning and plundering wherever they came upon a
village."

But the daring achievement of attempting the King's life
was now on the cards, and was about to be put into effect.
A man, dressed as a Phongyee, by some means or other
got into King Theebau's private apartments in the palace.
On being questioned as to his business he became flustered,
was seized and searched. A dha (Burmese sword) was
found " beneath his koyone, the yellow upper-garment of
the monk " ; and his Order being forbidden to carry arms
of any kind, there was strong evidence against the intruder.
The actor of " the Ascetic," might have been killed on the
spot, * had it not been suggested that he might have

* It is death for anyone to bear arms inside the Palace.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 45

accomplices. After inquiry, it was found that " the
intended legicide had come from the Shan camp with ten
followers, who were immediately seized. The leader and
one of the ten — said to be his nephew — were " tortured
to death forthwith " ; and the remaining nine were thrown
into prison. It was said that the palace authorities did
their best to keep the attempt on King Theebau's life a
secret; and it has not yet transpired who the would-be
regicide really was. It will henceforth be difficult for
strangers of any kind to enter the palace ; probably no
one— not even the British Resident in esse — will be
allowed to enter without being searched. The lively Corre-
spondent at Rangoon then concludes : — " The young
monster Theebau, therefore, continues to be fortunate. If,
however, the w^ould-be assassin was really a Shan, the
incident is muc?i more significant than a mere independent
attempt on the King's life would be." It is highly probable
that, in addition to the Shans' hatred, Theebau's subjects
are tired of him already ; and, were the former successful
at any time, others in and around Upper Burma would at
once join in.

It is most desirable that we should steadily bear in mind
the fact of the Shans, as it has been well expressed, sur-
rounding Burma "like a fringe, and without gaining a
footing anywhere, forming an important and respected, or
detested, part of the population everywhere round the
kingdom." Again, with reference to the revolt of the
Shans, the same authority, writing from Rangoon, at
the end of August, forcibly remarks, after speculating on the
chance the badly-armed yet brave and sturdy Shans would

46 ASHi PYEB.

have in a war against the comparatively well-armed
"vaunted invincibles" of Theebau : — "If, however, the
Kinwoon Mengyee (the former Prime Minister) were to see
in the present a favourable opportunity for wiping out hi&
disgrace" (these Burmese Woons — especially the Prime
and War Ministers — are ever getting into and getting out
of disgrace ! ), *' and rising again to supreme power, the
matter would be very different, and the Shan rebellion
might be the salvation of Burma. . . . The sudden end
of Theebau might prove rather awkward to us. There is
no legitimate heir anywhere near Maudalay. Claimants
would immediately spring up in Kangoon and Calcutta,
and possibly even in Upper Burma ; but what the Burmese
Ministers might do in the interval no one knows — probably
they themselves least of all."

With regard to heirs apparent in the Burmese Royal
Family, it may alleviate the Englishman's surprise when
he hears of the murder of a prince, or even of a batch of
princes — their extinction '* at one fell swoop " — if I remark
that there are no rules in favour of primogeniture among the
Burmese. The King may appoint whom he pleases as his
successor ; and murders of the Royal Family are con-
sidered— especially by King Theebau and his ndvisers —
like revolutions, as belonging to the national hiock of
Burmese customs.*

It was recently announced that the Hindus at Benares —
the city of Siva, the Destroyer — were led to believe that
the British Government proposed to make human sacrifices

* See also General Albert Fytche's Burma, Past and Present, vol. i.
pp. 211, 234.

THE BUBMESE QUESTION. 47

on the opening of a railway bridge across the Ganges. It
is to be hoped they did not take the idea from King
Theebau's real or projected sacrificial antics of some months
ago, thinking that the British, like the Golden Foot, might
thus abjure or propitiate misfortune, and court prosperity.
The Brahmans must now be convinced that the splendid
march from Cabul to Candahar by our victorious General,
has placed Afghanistan in a fair way of being settled — at
least so far as we are concerned — while the Lord of the
White Elephant is still surrounded by the implacable
Shans, waiting their opportunity.

Later accounts of the attempt on the King's life, made
it appear extraordinary that he should have escaped. The
so-called Phongyee was seized when within " easy striking
distance," and there seemed to be no doubt that he belonged
to '* one of the bands of Shans plundering about the
capital." We have material for a good tragedy in the
fact of the old Theinnee Tsawbwa having sworn to revenge
the murder of his daughter by Theebau. There may be
fresh attempts *' to kill a King" ; but the process here-
after will be far more difficult, on account of the guards
being threatened with death should a stranger be found
■within the inner court of the palace.

In September, it was announced at Rangoon that the
** Hpoung Woon, destined to take the place of the Kinwoon-
gyee, had returned to Mandalay, laden with treasure, screwed
out of the unfortunate river township, for which he had
been created a Mingyee, the highest titular rank under
thnt of the blood -royal."* It was now supposed that if
• Kangoon Correspondent in Daily Newt, October let, 1880.

48 ASHE PYEE.

this important Burmese official got into power, that all
hope of an amicable arrangement between Theebau and our
Government would be at an end. But another Woon
might at any time appear on the scene, and quickly drive
out the ambitious Hpoung. And so runs the world away
at head-quarters in Upper Burma.

There is a distinguished actor, mentioned at the com-
mencement of the firstjportion of this paper, whom I have
neglected on account of the interest attached to the Shan
revolt : and that is our old friend the Naingangya
Woondouk. It had been affirmed early in August that he
was poisoned by the King's orders. Be this true or not,
it is tolerably certain that the unfortunate Burmese diplo-
matist, who could not come to terms with us, has not since
appeared in the Burmese drama at Mandalay. It is just
possible he may have gone off to the Shans, or may
appear some day as a " pretender," which would produce
a new phase of the Burmese question. No one could tell
what had become of Oo Myeh, the Secretary to the
Embassy.

It was now said that Theebau, having got rid of the
outward signs of his so-called rebuff by us, and having got
news of our latest disaster in Afghanistan, was inclined to
" bluster." It was also hinted that the King would not
have " a new treaty with us, even if we were to come and
beg for it."

It may aid the future historian to record that, about this

time, the Mandalay Government Gazette gave —

** a list of all the chief civil officials of Burma, including two or
three new and important appointments. The four principal grades
of civil authority are :— (1) Menggyior Chief Minister, (2) Atwengwung

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 49

or Minister of the Interior, (3) Myo-wun or City Magistrate, (4)
Wundauk or Sub-Minister. The highest military of&ce is that of
* Weng-do-hmu,' or Commander of the Palace Guard, who ranks
next to a Chief Minister. Ordinarily there are four Meng-gyis,
four Atweng-wuns, two Myo-wuns, four Wundauks, and three Weng-
do-hmus, viz. those of the Right, the Left, the Eastern, and
Western quarters. The prescribed number of chief ministers, city
magistrates, and commanders is rarely, if ever, exceeded ; the
other two grades are filled with more irregularity. During the
reign of the last King there were five Atweng-wuns, one, being
stationed as a special revenue superintendent at Bhamo, and no
fewer than seven sub-ministers. A brief summary is given of the
services of each of the new functionaries. The Taung Khweng,
chief minister, has passed through the grades of herald, governor,
sub-minister, and minister of the interior. The Pauk Myaing
Atweng-wun has been envoy to the courts of France, Italy, and
England, and has acted as herald and sub-minister. The achieve-
ments of the Hletheng Atweng-wun are given more in detail. He
has been in the palace employ from a very early age, and during the
late monarch's reign was promoted successively, through the ranks
of slipper-bearer, tea-server, and betel-box-holder, to that of the
Governor of the Royal Barges. For his loyalty and energy (which
signifies the active share he took in the late massacres), the present
Lord of Existence created him city magistrate, and has now exalted
him to the dignity of minister of interior. His special charge, till
recently, was the supervision of the Shan country and the middle
territory. A notification in the same Gazette now appoints him
Supreme Governor of all the lower fluviatile provinces. He is placed
in command of a large military force, and is to take immediate
measures to prevent disturbances in the skirts of the country, and
the access of robbers and bad characters, who are causing terror and
insecurity to the traders and cultivators of the Golden Kingdom."

We must not here leave the Shans and their coun try-
without thinking well over the very important part the
Shans may be destined to play in any present or future
Burmese political military drama. Here there is a people,
as before remarked, two or three millions of them, with vast
trading capabilities, and inhabiting some of the fairest and
most producitve countries of the earth, apparently seeking

4

50 ashIj pyee.

to wheel into the ranks of civilisation if we only gave the
word of command. I persist in the assertion, and defy
contradiction, that the tide in their affairs has almost
come ; and when it does come will surely lead us and them
on to fortune if we take prudent advantage of it. The
picture must be kept before our eye till something is done
for the people — that of the rather Chinese-looking Shan,
with his fair wife and still fairer daughter, in their pictu-
resque broad-brimmed straw hats and pleasing costume,
the rare Shan ruby setting off their charms ; the Shan pony,
with merchandise on his back, and the Shan children in
rear of their four-footed friend, — all marching onward
through the rugged defile as if bent on a nearer approach
to civilisation.

The same mail which brought to London detailed news
of the Shan revolt, brought also some important intelli-
gence from China. First, Chung-How (famous in the
Kuldja question) had been released; Eussia was said to
have announced her intention to send a high officer to
Pekin to settle the differences between the two countries ;
and, most important of all. Colonel Gordon, who had
quitted Lord Eipon's Staff towards the middle of the year
for the flowery land, had just left China. He had not been
able to do much for the Chinese ; but his advice should be
written in letters of gold on the walls of Pekin and
Canton. He had told them that the Kussians could take
the coast ports all of a heap, and Pekin, v/ithin six weeks if
they so desired ; he had told them it would be simple
madness for China to go to war with such a power as
Russia. He had suggested the capital of the Empire

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 61

being removed " from Pekin to the centre of the country."
Still, everything seemed decidedly warlike in China. It
was said that the elder Empress and Prince Ch*un had
thoroughly determined upon war. And Eussia now
appeared determined to bring one on if she possibly
could. The result of the questions pending between
the Russian and Chinese Governments seemed to have
ended in an irritating demand of a heavy indemnity from
the Chinese, which they certainly would refuse to pay,
as they conceived there should have been no naval demon-
stration in their waters; and so, through the winter, China
and Russia, with swords drawn, would be longing to attack
each other, like the famous Sir Richard Strachan and Earl
of Chatham.

Of course, Burma all this time was watching the ag-
gressive policy of Russia towards her old master, China.
Some of the old Woons probably thought that Russia was
going too far. It would be useless to enforce on King
Theebau Colonel Gordon's advice to the Celestials, not to
think of going to war with a superior power ; but, doubt-
less, it came to the Golden Ears, bringing a wholesome
lesson and probably dread of British power. But Theebau,
like most of his predecessors, is a thoroughly impractic-
able monarch. He knows we have all his ports already ;
but he never seems aware of our long-suffering or patience,
and that ** doing the thing" at any moment would be as
easy as lying. Being young, there is yet time for him to
become " every inch " a useful king, identifying the true
interests of his country with ours. We do not wish to
fetter him at all if it can possibly be avoided. What shall

4 •

62 ASHfe PYEE.

be done, then, to give life and prosperity to an unfortunate
country so highly blessed by Nature ? On England
depends entirely the answer to this question. Resuming
very briefly the thread of this sketch ; news at length
arrived from Mandalay that Theebau*s queen (one of
the four head) had presented the Golden Foot with a son
and heir; and the circumstance, it was thought, could
" simplify matters very much " if the King were assas-
sinated. There would be some one to rally round in case of
rebellion. But the report soon after was announced to be
false, for the expected "son and heir" turned out to be a
daughter, after all !

Lt was now reported from Upper India that Prince
Mingoondeing Mintha was dead.

He and his brother, the Mingoon Prince, were the
leaders in the Eebellion of 1866 *; and, after various mis-
demeanours, they were eventually exiled to Benares. With
reference to Mingoon's claim to the throne, it was well
remarked : — ** If we interfere to put anyone on the Burmese
throne, it should most certainly be the Nyoungyan,
who is the eldest living prince of the pure blood royal, is
popular with the Burmese, and, moreover, is a pious and
kindly man; while the best we know of the Mingoon
Mintha is, that he tried to kill his father, and to burn
the people who saved his life."! Truly, we have hard
material to deal with in some princes of the royal blood
of Burma.

* See Our Burmese Wars and Belations with Burma, pp. 380-381.
" These princes actually concocted a plot to sack and burn Kangoon."
t Daily Newt Correspondent at Rangoon.

THE BUBMESE QUESTION. 53

"While at home we were speculating on the probability
of another era of commercial prosperity being before us,
provided that Turkey, Afghanistan, South Africa, Burma,
and even Ireland, did not lead us into " extraordinary and
ruinous expenditure," and while affairs were dull, and
tranquillity seemed to prevail, for the time, in Upper
Burma, the British station of Thayetmyo, on the Irawadi,
suddenly assumed a warlike aspect. For some time little
news had been received from Mandalay, and it was sup-
posed that, " although diplomatic relations had not been
resumed," things were likely to continue in a state of
inertia.

But now the most exaggerated rumours flew about
everywhere, and the ever busy and watchful Special
Correspondent flashed by telegraph to London,* that the
King, rendered arrogant by the easy suppression of Prince
Nyoungoke's rebelHon, was preparing for war with us.
Two detachments of the King's regular troops, it was
said, had arrived at the frontier, and taken up their posts
on the banks of the river, facing each other. They were
one thousand strong, and their tone was '* insolent and
arrogant in the extreme." They gave out that they were
about to attack our territory, ** in retaliation for Prince
Nyoungoke's attempt to incite insurrection in Burma."
They were in daily expectation of reinforcements under
a General, with instructions from the King to demaud
from the British Government an indemnity "for the losses
sufi'ered by Burmese subjects from the expedition of Prince

* Standard, October 12th, 1880.

64 ASHfe PYEE.

Nyoungoke," and that, failing to obtain the indemnity, they
would at once cross our frontier and attack us. It was
also said that the Burmese intended to blockade the
channel of the river, to prevent the upward passage of our
gun-boats.

This is all so very like the stereotyped fashion of
"coming events'' from Upper Burma, that we have now
got quite accustomed to it, and so the only way is to be
always prepared for it. The very frequency of its
repetition may lull us into a dangerous security, and,
therefore, I have thought it necessary to refer to it before
concluding my remarks on the Burmese question

It was actually thought, by fair judges, that we should

now have trouble with ** the tyrant of Burma," and that

the long-expected crisis was at hand, which would have

brought about an easy solution of the Question. But

neither the time had yet come, nor the man I Telegrams,

of the 18th and 17th October, from the Viceroy, were

published by the India Office, that it had been announced

by the Chief Commissioner, Rangoon : —

" In case exaggerated accounts reach you, I beg to report as follows :
♦' On Sunday, the 10th, Deputy-Commissioner Thayetmyo reported
that Upper Burmans were collecting on frontier and intended
to attack British territory. On Wednesday he arranged with
commanding officer for increasing the Allanmyo * garrison by one
company of Native Infantry. Yesterday (Monday) Deputy-Com-
missioner telegraphed that possibly native informants had been
misled, and there was no cause for alarm now. The cause for
dissatisfaction was said to be our refusal to pay indemnity for losses
caused by Nyoungoke Prince's incursion last May. I do not antici-
pate trouble, but have directed Deputy-Commissioner to take steps

* Allanmyo, on the left bank of the Irawadi, nearly opposite
Thayetmyo, which is about 250 miles up the Irawadi from Kangoon.

THE BURMESE QUESTION. 56

to improve his sourcea of information, as alarms of this kind harass
the troops and disturb the public ; such rumours will have effect on
trade ; and already Flotilla Company's agent Thayetmyo has tele-
graphed alarming rumour to his Rangoon principal. Latest news
from Mandalay gave no sign of probable troubles."

Again, the Chief Commissioner telegraphed to the Vice-
roy from Moulmein * : —

•• Nothing has occurred on the Thayetmyo frontier, and no fresh
rumours are reported thence. Origin of previous jrumours not as-
certained. I have no grounds for anticipating unusual events on
frontier."

Anxiety, however, prevailed at Rangoon and up the
river (Irawadi) ; and two companies of Native Infantry
were ordered up to protect the villages which might be
exposed to attack, and support the detachment at AUanmyo,
And now came the rumour that the Nyoungyan Prince
had escaped from Calcutta, and the crown of Theebau was
about to pass away for ever. The transition from
Nyoungoke to Nyoungyan was simple and natural; so
Englishmen, as well as Burmese, believed the story of the
escape in Rangoon ; and no wonder it was believed in
London. But there was really no cause for alarm.
Nyoungyan — wisely biding his time — had only absented
himself for a night or so from his house in or near
Calcutta ; and as nothing could be done without the
"King" in esse, and intelligence was received from
Mandalay that there was no probability of a disturbance
on our frontier, all things flew into their places again very
speedily; of course, just to wait till the next time. The
assembly of royal troops on the frontier was also ascribed

* Moulmein (Maulmain) is about ninety or 100 miles nearly east
irom Rangoon, across the G-ulf of Martaban.

56 ASHfe PYEE.

to the number of dacoities (robberies) in the adjacent
districts ; but, of course, this was as absurd as the reported
escape of Nyoungyan — or rather the departure of the
favourite Prince for Ashe Pyee — asKingTheebau was quite
shrewd enough to know that his troops, unless under a
very superior and ho7iest General, were very likely, accord-
ing to Peachum's view of a lawyer, to " encourage rogues "
that they might " live by them ! "

The whole play was thought to be got up by the King,,
as part of the political game which has been so long played
at Mandalay, to see if we were on our guard ; what effect,
false rumours of would be great events might have on
the people of Burma ; or to give the idea of ubiquity
and readiness for service being attributes of the Ava
soldiery. Theebau had this time missed his mark, and
done something to facilitate the solution of the Burmese
question. Each irritating movement made by the Goldea
Foot compels the Government of India to ask " how
long this kind of thing is to be permitted to last ? how
long are British subjects to be subjected to periodical fits-
of excitement ? how long is their trade to be upset and
inj iired ? "*

The same writer continues: — ** However averse the
English public may be to a policy of annexation, each
successful demonstration made by men like Theebau
inevitably forces upon the Government of India the con-
sideration whether it would not be better for all parties in

* See a capital article in Allen's Indian Mail, October 14tli, 1880'
— »' The Mandalay Menace."

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 67

Burma, if the British frontier line were extended to
Mandalay, or even to Bhamo."

And again, " A great deal has been said and done about
the rectification of the frontier on the north-west of India;
but there are politicians who are of opinion that a little
rectification of the north-eastern frontier would not do
any harm."

The political and commercial advantages of annexation,
he says, " are obvious. The produce of the fairly rich
country lying between Assam and the Irawadi would find a
natural outlet in the emporium of Bhamo, whence it could
be sent to China or to Rangoon, as happened to suit the
interests of the merchant." Free trade on the Irawadi,
from Bhamo to the sea — the noble river bearing on its
ample bosom the wealth and produce of Upper Burma
and south-western China — would create the grandest com-
mercial revolution in Eastern Asia ever known by man !

It is impossible for any one who knows Burma not to
agree in some measure with the following remarks, which
the present writer found much in accordance with his own : —
** At present the commerce of Upper Burma finds a pre-
carious market just as the ruler of Mandalay or his officials-
may choose to interfere with it ; but under British Govern-
ment rich argosies would be borne along in one constant,
stream on the bosom of the great river, instead of the
sparse and precarious fleet of boats which is at present th&
result of misrule at Mandalay. The advantages of annexa-
tion would be as great to the people as to trade. The
Shans, who are in a perpetual state of rebellion against
the Government of Independent Burma, would be brought

58 ASHf; PYEE.

into the ways of peace and industry." Pegu and Arakan
would be rid of dacoits from Upper Burma, who can
€nter through well-known passes, and *' the resources of a
splendid country would have a fair chance of proper
development." Such probable advantages as these (and a
hundred others) surely cannot be ignored. These are the
ends to be brought about ; and if they can be consummated
without annexation, so much the better for the thorough
Bon- annexation argument. The question, then, comes to
he, as matters at present exist. Is it possible to break up
all the old worthless pieces, and to crystallize the mineral
anew, without the political chemist, Great Britain, taking
entire charge? If such be possible with Upper Burma,
then farewell to annexation for ever : it will never more be
required in our Eastern Empire. Anyway, as annexation
is far from the policy of a wise and Liberal Government,
the apparently more conciliatory mode will be sure to have
a fair trial. The question then comes to be, Has not
Upper Burma had a fair trial already ? When Dr. John-
son said to bis toady friend, Boswell, "You do not see
your way through the question. Sir ! " he remarked what
might be applied to far greater men at the present day
than the eminent biographer — to statesmen and others who
take a one-sided view of a question, and are as difficult to
move as the heavy siege-trains in a campaign of bygone
days. It is a species of political creed which makes no
progress whatever ; and it too often proceeds — as is very
probable in the present — from sheer ignorance of the
position or the question at issue. Then we have those who
halt between two opinions, who are not able to come boldly

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 59

forth and say, " It would be utter madness to think of
annexing useless and barren Afghanistan ; it would be an
act of wisdom and humanity to annex fertile and wealthy
Upper Burma." "But it is useless to hamper our already
overgrown Eastern Empire with countries that won't pay !"
Is pai/, then, to be made the grand sole criterion of success
in our onward march of civilisation ? Would it pay ?
It is sad to think that many well-educated men are incap-
able, when arguing on political and other subjects, of
asking any better question. It might not pay all at once ;
but, as Pegu has done, it would eventually, and then greatly
assist the impoverished finances of India. If nothing
d cided should be done now, it is quite possible that the
inhabitants of Upper Burma, aided by the Shans and other
tribes, may come forward at no distant date — yes, come
boldly forward to the Viceroy, and declare, " We shall no
longer have a Golden Foot to reign over us. Our country
has, from bad government, become ruined and desolate,
wliich once was flourishing and ' full of people/ As you
have taken care of Pegu, so take care of us/' This would,
in fact, be making all Burma one, which, in every sense, it
seems destined to be. Even Afghanistan may soon come
forward and ofi'er herself up to us, when the brave Afghans
(so lately eulogised by the gallant and energetic Sir F.
Roberts) find their country going from bad to worse ; may
come forward with " the keys of the Khyber " in their
pocket, and, perhaps, with wuld and chaotic Heratees, " the
key of India " round their chiefs neck ; and it may be, also,
various wild tribes in that quarter may come, all asking us
to open up the lock of peace and prosperity which has so

60 ashI: pyeb.

long been closed to them. They must be quite aware of
what advantages the Punjab has gained by our rule, in the
same manner as the people, even '* the disaffected," of
Upper Burma must often turn a longing eye towards Pegu
and the beneficence of our local government.

The difference, of course, in the two cases is simply
that we require either possession of, or strict control over,
the one country, to make an harmonious whole ; but we
do not at all, at present, require the other. We can wait
for Afghanistan, if it is ever to be ours, meanwhile fortify-
ing ourselves against all chance of attack ; but we cannot
wait for something to be done with Upper Burma without
damaging Lower or British Burma. The old and profit-
less regime has gone on too long in Chin-India ; so, in
public interest, for years to come, if we would be wise in
time, it should be Burma versus Afghanistan ! And, by
chief control or possession in Chin-India, what a check-
mate we give to Russia in Eastern Asia ! Strange it is
that the '* bugbear" should so long have excited a sen-
sation in the West, and that the East should have been
almost ignored. Even after the first disastrous Afghan war,
or after forty years,* it is surely time to look more eastward,

* Look on this picture of eighty-two years ago, and compare with
the present time : — India in a far from settled and comfortable
state. Zemaun Shah, the King of the Afghans, and the remaining
head of the Mahomedan power in the East, was with a powerful
army at Lahore, hanging over our frontier. Among various well-
known salient-points is then mentioned " a general ferment in the
minds of the Mussulman princes and nobles, many of whom had been
Tery recently deprived of power. 'When one looks back,' says a
very distinguished Indian governor, ' on those times, one can hardly
believe in the panic (Afghanistan) lately felt in India, which led to so

THE BURMESE QUESTION, 61

especially as troubles may be on the card between Russia
and China. How Russia first got in the wedge — in south-
west China at least— will be briefly told hereafter. But here,
with a Russian fleet in the Pacific, or in Chinese waters,
it may be well to remark, with reference to Professor
Marten's brochure, Le Coirflit entre la Russie et la Chine :
** In regard to the question actually pending between
Russia and China, the restitution of Kuldja, the Pro-
fessor assumes that China wants war, and justifies Russia's
detention of territory on the supposition that the return
of the Celestials would be followed by a general massacre
of the inhabitants." And when the flame spread, the
power of England in Burma would chime in well with
the steady " conciliatory attitude of China,'' displayed
while resisting "the ever increasing demands of her
antagonist."*

Although the recent apparent "Menace " from Mandalay
came to nothing, still it educed certain points which seemed
to put fresh diflBculties in the way of solving the Burmese
question. At any moment it might now be believed by the
Burmese that Nyoungyan had escaped from Calcutta, and
gone off to the Shan States to organize an insurrection
against King Theebau ; while the Royal troops continued
their usual boasting, that they will double-up, crush, or
crucify any English or Burmese troops who may support

many real dangers and evils I ' " — " Yizier All Khan; or, the Massacre
at Benares. A chapter in British Indian History." By Sir John
Davis (1844).

* See Special Correspondent (St. Petersburg) of Standard, November
17th, 1880.

62 ashI: pyee.

Nyoungyan's claim. Again, there is not so much fear on
the frontier line as at Rangoon. The place was said to
swarm with Theebau's subjects, those who for months past
had been spreading sedition throughout the district in the
smaller towns.

Of course, there are still Burmans who talk about *' the
glories of the old days," the triumphs of the Peacock flag,
and " the fear of the Burman name extending far into
India and China." So there is a certain amount of natural
national vanity to be dealt with in considering the ques-
tion. It is here worthy of remark that the excitement on
the frontier and at the commercial capital having occurred
during the Buddhist Lent (the end), it was wonderful how
well the peace was kept at Rangoon — a result which would
be greatly in our favour should any similar and more im-
portant •' panic " or " scare " ever occur. The alarm, then,
wore off, and Theebau became in " a quiet mood." He even
sent down one of his steamers for merchandise to Rangoon.
The captain announced his readiness to take goods back
with him ; but he did not get any. Some Chinese and
other merchants, however, had offered to pay the King a
subsidy for the use of his steamers. Regarding these
vessels, it was remarked at the end of October: —

"If they were properly worked, and kept decent time,
they might make large profits ; but under the present
management no traders will have anything to do with
them."*

It is presumed that some idea will now have been formed,

* Bangoon CorreBpondent of Daily Newt, October 29th.

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 63

especially by those hitherto unacquainted with the subject,
of the complicated nature of the Burmese question. It
stands forth, like Satan, " proudly eminent," in apparently
inextricable confusion, above all other Oriental questions.
It seems like a question with a mysterious beginning and
a doubtful end. Here, in Burma, for the greater part of
two years, the next-door neighbour of our flourishing Pro-
yince has been on his trial, continually letting, so far as
we are concerned, " I dare not, wait upon I would " ;
neglecting our advice, laughing at our treaties, and won-
dering at our magnanimity and forbearance ; ruining the
concurrent commercial interests which must ever naturally
exist between British and Upper Burma, and keeping Pegu
locally, politically, and commercially in a continual state
of anxiety. What is to be done with King Theebau ? Is
there any chance of amendment ? It has before been
remarked that this pertinacious Golden Foot may not be so
black as he is painted ; but still, taking the most charitable
view, so far as we are interested, black enough in all con
science, as if a throne had been given by the evil genii to
designed " obstructive " to progress and civilisation in Chin-
India. What is to be done with him ? On the answer
would appear to rest at present the solution of the entire
Burmese question.

While remarking elsewhere* on " Annexation and Non-
Annexation," I endeavoured briefly to enumerate a few of
the difficulties we labour under in our endeavours to reform
Upper Burma, and make this grand region a worthy

* Our Burmese Wars and Belations with Burma, p. 416.

64 ASHfe PYEE.

brother to his prosperous sister, Pegu. It is just possible
that some strange mental revolution for the better may yet
take place in King Theebau ; but all will admit that is a
long time in coming. As the King is said to be very well
disposed towards the Liberals, he surely should make
a fair start in the game of reform during the Liberal
Government. This would, at least, prevent his crown from
being taken away from him and given to another ; the
probable result, failing annexation, if he continues in the
error of his ways.

It was lately rumoured that an English Commission was
inquiring ** into the legitimacy of the Mingoon (before
alluded to) being Theebau's successor" ; but to the writer,
the Nyoungyan Prince being alive, the story seemed
incredible. Any way, however, Theebau's crown, without
the desired reformation, is " a crown of tinsel."*

Mr. Bryce, lately discoursing with his usual earnest-
ness on Eastern affairs, declared that it was not a new
question " whether the grievances of oppressed populations
made it worth while to interfere with the Government of

Turkey But things had got beyond the point when

the alternations of movement and rest were before us.
The existing condition of Turkey could not be maintained.
There was nothing solid to preserve."

For "Turkey" let us read the Kingdom of Ava, or
Upper Burma, and state, as is the case with the former,
that there, under the present rule, all things seem in a

* Lord Dalhousie. See Our Burmese Wars, &c., p. 289. " Touching
on Afghanistan, and the uselessness of making a treaty with the
Golden Foot," see also pp. 287, 291.

THE BUEMESE QUESTION. 65

State of " hopeless confusion^' ; and it is only a question of
time, or "how soon the inevitable collapse will come."
And, again, by carrying out the principle of leaving things
alone too far, we simply invite a war !

The true greatness of a once famous kingdom depends
on our early treatment of the Burmese question. Peace,
commercial prosperity, the development of hidden resources,
and how to make, like Themistocles, '' a small town a great
city," have been the author's watchwords in writing these
few remarks. The misfortune with Theebau is that, unlike
the great Athenian, he can "fiddle," but he cannot do
anything for his kingdom. There is at present absolutely
nothing going on in Upper Burma " to the weal and
advancement of the State." To take the very mildest view
of the whole matter, especially of one whose strange
progress occupied some space in his larger work, perhaps
the writer is warranted in supposing there may be
" counsellors and governors " around Theebau, " which
may be held sufficient, negoiiis pares, able to manage
affairs, and to keep them from precipices and manifest
inconveniences ; which, nevertheless, are far from the
ability to raise and amplify an estate " — like Lord Lawrence
or Sir Arthur Phayre — " in power, means, and fortune ";*
by doing which, if Orientals would only emerge from their
selfishness and seclusion, and learn the easy lesson, there
must ever be mutual benefit in sharing these inestimable
blessings with others. When this reciprocal philosophy is
fairly understood in the East, European and Indian states-

* Bacon's Essays.

66 ASHf: PYBE.

men will no longer have to puzzle their hrains with
intricate, tedious Oriental questions. Then the political
millenial day will be ushered in, the joy -bells ringing forth
" Peace on earth — good -will towards men ! "

December, 1880.

67

CHAPTER III.

BEITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND WESTERN CHINA I
THEIR CONCURRENT COMMERCIAL INTERESTS.

"Commerce wore a rostral-crown upon her head, and kept her
eyes fixed upon a compass." — Tatler.

[To the June (1880) number of the Journal of the Society
of Arts, p. 644, the present writer contributed the greater
portion of the following paper. In the same number of
the journal will also be found some interesting statistics
on the " Opium Trade in India," the production and sale
of opium being a Government monopoly (casually alluded
to in "The Burmese Question"), yielding eight and a
half to nine millions sterling. The writer had then nothing
to say about the consumption of opium in British Burma.
Mr. Pease, in the House of Commons on the 8th of July,
asked the Secretary of State for India whether he had
received a copy of a memorandum forwarded in the spring
of the year (1880) by Mr. Aitchison, Chief Commissioner,
on the subject. The Marquis of Hartington replied that
the paper in question had not been received by the India
Office. It is difficult to see, in the opinion of not a few

5 *

68 ASHil PYEE.

observers, why Great Britain should interfere with the
opium eaters of China, Burma, and India. Like alcohol
in England, the moderate use of the valuable drug has
many virtues and great healing power, especially in Eastern
countries ; and the Oriental has therefore as much right to
his opium as the Englishman has to his pipe, beer, and
spirits, which, if used, and not abused, solace him after his
daily toil. We have much to do in the East before inter-
fering with the time-honoured custom of opium eating.
There it is everywhere a case of " Local Option." What
gin, whisky, and ale are to the Briton, opium is to the
Oriental, with this difference, that if the Asiatic can enjoy
" an elysium on earth " with a small piece of opium in his
cheek, he can easily forego the spirit which so much more
speedily renders a man useless, or " drunk and incapable."
Commerce being essentially a sober game, perhaps this
view of the question may be kept in mind in any future
discussion of Concurrent Commercial Interests in the East.]
The concurrent or mutual commercial interests of
foreign countries must ever engage the attention of the
merchant and the politician : of the merchant, because the
very life and soul of his calling depend on them ; and of
the politician, because it will be invariably found —
especially in the East — that commerce is the secret or
unseen guiding star of all political conduct.

Politically speaking, British and Upper Burma should
be one, to make matters entirely safe in Eastern Asia.
Commercially speaking, the unity of these two countries,
in the vast interests of a comparatively new and rapidly
rising commerce, as well as of civilisation, cannot

BEITISH AND UPPER BUEMA, AND W. CHINA. 69

be too much insisted on. It is simply a natural state of
things — a sort of holy alliance designed by a far greater
than Indra, and brought about chiefly by the mighty
Irawadi — the grand artery or highway of Burma — which it
were idle not to recognize. Ireland is not more necessary to
the power and prosperity of England than Upper Burma is
to Pegu. Alompra, the hunter, founder of the present
dynasty, knew well the value of what I have styled else-
where a *' Princess among the Provinces " ; and it did not
require any very great genius to know that a kingdom,
such as Upper Burma, entirely cut off from all communi-
cation with the sea, or from the advantages of many fine
ports, was sheer mockery — a crown of tinsel, as Lord
Dalhousie remarked ; and this was the cause, in the Treaty
of 1855, of the late King of Burma's persistently yet
naturally refusing to sign away Pegu, the glorious
conquest and inheritance of his ancestor, notwithstanding
the well- arranged existence of " friendly relations " between
us.* Without any desire to advocate annexation, I
believe there is a deeply felt yearning for British rule or
British protection throughout Upper Burma; for the people
of the lower country are a thousand times safer and
happier than ever before, as would be immediately seen
by treading " the long extent of backward time *' in the
histories of Pegu and the former kingdom of Ava.f

* Our Burmese Wars, <&c., pp. 379-330. See also pp. 418-419.

t Some slight idea of former Burmese and Peguese misery, under
a cruel despotism, will be gained by the perusal of a paper on.
*'■ Sparseness of Population," commencing at p. 328, especially of
pp. 335-336, Our Burmese Wars, &o.

70 ASHt PTEE.

In some way or other. Humanity, and Civilisation, and
Commerce all cry aloud for our assistance in the present
crisis ; and shall we deny it to one of the fairest and most
productive countries of God's earth ?

For the sake of those who have not heen ahle to give
much time or attention to Burma, before turning to com-
mercial matter, I shall beg leave to state very briefly that
Pegu, Arakan, and the long line of sea-coast named Tenas-
serim — the three maritime provinces of Chin- India or
India beyond the Ganges — were united under one adminis-
tration in January 1862, and called British Burma.
Arakan and Tenasserim were acquired by treaty after
the first Burmese war of 1824-25-26 ; and Pegu was
occupied and retained consequent on the second war of
1852-53. The entire length of the country is upwards of
900 miles, and the area about 90,000 square miles,* or
half the size of Spain. The country lies between 20° 50'
on the north, and on the south in about 10° 50' north
latitude.. British Burma is bounded on the west by the
Bay of Bengal ; Arakan on the north by Chittagong, and
some independent states, and on the east by the Yoma
mountains; Pegu is separated from Upper Burma on the
north by a line corresponding to the 19° 30' parallel of
north latitude, and is bounded on the east by the Salween
river ; Tenasserim is bounded on the east by a long line of
mountains separating it from Siam, and varying from
3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. The physical aspect of
the country is thus described : — Arakan is separated from

* Arakan contains 18,000 ; Pegu, 34,000 ; and Tenasserim, 38,000
square miles. i

BEITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 71

Pegu and Upper Burma on the east by a range of moun-
tains, which attains at its greatest elevation a height of
7,000 feet. The range runs nearly parallel with the line of
sea-coast, and gradually lowers towards the south. The
northern portion of the country has a large extent of
alluvial soil. In the lower course of the river Kuladan
(which rises in the mountains to the east of Arakan) and
its numerous affluents, the breadth of the land from the
shore to the water-shed mountains is from 80 to 90
miles. The water- shed range separating Arakan from
Pegu extends southerly, and between that range and the.
sea-shore for a length of nearly 200 miles, as far as a point
near Cape Negrais, the country is a mere narrow strip of
land Pegu and Martaban lie in the valleys of the
Irawadi and Sittang rivers. These valleys, bounded east
and west by mountain ranges, are narrow in their upper
portions, but expand at the delta of the Irawadi into " a
magnificent alluvial region, penetrated by a vast number
of tidal creeks, and extending over 10,000 square miles."*
Unlike India, drought is unknown in Burma, and, conse-
quently, famine, that occasional scourge of our Imperial
dependency, is there quite unknown.

To give a more general idea of the country, I shall cite
a few extracts from a valuable work f which has recently
appeared at Kangoon, the capital of British Burma.
Rangoon is described as " a district in the Pegu division,

* See George Duncan's Geography oj India, d'c, pp. 59-60.

t The British Burma Gazetteer, in two volumes. Vol. II., compiled
by authority. Rangoon : Printed at the Government Press, 1879. Of
course, these extracts were omitted in the paper for the Society of
Arts^ journal.

72 ASnfe PYEE.

occupying the sea- board from the mouth of the Tsit-Toung
■westward to that mouth of the great Irawadi river -which
is generally known as the China Bakir, but is more
correctly called the To, and extending inland up the valleys
of the Irawadi and the Tsit-Toung rivers to the Henzada
and Tharawadi districts on the west of the Pegu Roma,
and to the Shwe-gyeen district of Tenasserim on the
east."

" The general aspect of the district is that of a vast
plain extending along the sea-coast, and, slowly rising,
stretching north for some twenty-five miles, when, in about
the centre, it is met and, as it were, checked by the lower
slopes of the Pegu Roma, and, struggling up amongst these
mountains in the valleys of the Poo-zwon-doung (Puzen-
doun) and the Pegu, it folds round them east and west, and
rolls on, forming portions of the valleys of the Tsit-toung
and of the Hlaing. South of the Pegu and in the greater
part of the valley of the Hlaing or Rangoon, for some
distance above the latitude of the town of the same name,
the country is everywhere highly intersected by tidal
creeks ; the water, a few feet below the surface, is brackish
and undrinkable and wells are useless, but further
north are streams tidal for some distance and fresh
higher up/'

** The only mountains in the district are the Pegu Roma,
which enter in the extreme north, where they attain an
estimated height of 2,000 feet, the highest elevation of the
range, and a few miles lower down fork out into two main
branches with several subsidiary spurs. The western
branch (which has a general S.S.W. direction) and its off-

BEITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 73

shoots divide the valleys of the Hlaing and Puzendoim
rivers, and, after rising once more in the irregularly shaped
lime-stone hill called Toung-goyo, a little to the south of
the seventeenth parallel, terminate as a hilly range some
thirty miles north of Rangoon. The range is continued as
an elevated ridge past that town, vrhere it appears in the
Literite hills round the great pagoda and, beyond the Pegu
river, in the Syriam Koondan, finally disappearing beneath
the alluvial plains of the delta, being last seen in the rocks
which crop up in the Hmaw-won stream. The southern
portion of this ridge lying between the Pegu river and
the Hmaw-won runs in a direction nearly parallel to and
iibout three miles east of the Rangoon river, and, nowhere
more than five miles broad, is locally known as the Thau-
lyeng (Syriam) Koondan or 'rising ground.' The eastern
branch continues from the point of bifurcation towards the
S.8.E. and, intersected by the Pegu valley, sinks near the
town of Pegu, and finally disappears south of the Pegu
river, where it is represented by an undulating wooded tract
of no great extent. The sides of the main range are, as a
rule, steep, and the valleys sharply excavated, but the
upper portion of the Pegu valley has more the character of
a table-land with a hilly surface, intersected by deep
ravines." **The principal river is the Hlaing, which rises
near Prome as the Zay, and entering this district in about
17° 30', flows S.S.E., at first through high sandy banks,
past Rangoon, falling into the sea in about 16° 30' as the
Rangoon river. It is navigable by the largest sea-going
vessels as far as Rangoon at all seasons, and during spring
tides ships of considerable burden can ascend for thirty

74 ASnk PYEE.

miles further ; but just below Rangoon the Hastings shoal
stretches across the river, and bars the approach of ships
of heavy draught except at springs. During the north-
west monsoon river steamers can ascend to beyond the
northern boundary of the district, and boats of from 200
to 300 baskets burden can navigate the upper portion at
all seasons. The tide is felt beyond the northern boundary,
and the water is brackish and undrinkable as high as the
village of Kywai-Koo, about twenty miles below Hlaing."
*' The Puzendoun rises in the eastern slopes of the southern
spurs of the Pegu Eoma, and falls into the Pegu river at
its mouth at the town of Rangoon, after a south-easterly
course of some fifty-three miles through a valley at first
narrow but suddenly widening out eastwards. At its mouth
it is 440 yards broad, and large ships could formerly ascend
for a short distance to the numerous rice-cleaning mills
erected in the Puzendoun quarter of Rangoon and on the
opposite bank. It is now silting up, owing to the vast
quantities of rice husk discharged from the mills. Small
boats can, during the rains, go to within twenty miles of
its source, wheie the water is sweet and the banks and bed
rocky. The valley through which this river flows is rich
in valuable timber in the north, and in the south is well
cultivated with rice. The Pegu river rises in the eastern
slopes of the Pegu Roma, and falls into the Rangoon, or
Hlaing river, at Rangoon. For some distance from its
source it traverses a narrow rocky valley, and is fed by
numerous mountain torrents ; but below the old town of
Pegu it enters a flat and fertile country, well cultivated
with rice. During the rains it is navigable by river

BEITISH AND UPPEE BUKMA, AND W. CHINA. 75

Steamers and by the largest boats as far as Pegu, but during
the cold and hot seasons large boats can ascend that dis-
tance during spring-tides only. At all seasons sea-going
vessels can pass up for a few miles. ... A new locked
canal forms a portion of the eastern boundary of the dis-
trict. West of the Hlaing the whole country is divided and
sub-divided by tidal creeks, many navigable by large boats,
which unite the Hlaing and the numerous mouths of the
Irawadi."

" The FORESTS include tracts of all classes.''
"The LOCAL ACCOUNTS and the Telugoo and Tamil
traditions seem to show that, probably some thousand years
B.C., the inhabitants of Tulingana visited and colonised
the coast of Burma, finding there a Mon population. . . .
and the country of the colonists appears in the word
Talaiftg, known to surrounding nations and to Europeans.
The palm-leaf histories allude to a city called Aramana,
on the site of tJie present Rangoon, and assert that during
the lifetime of Gautama, that is before 543 B c, the Shw6
Dagon Pagoda in Rangoon was founded by two brothers.
Poo {dove) and Ta-paw {plenty), sons of the King of Ook-
ka-la-ba, west of Rangoon, and near the modern Twan-te,
who had visited India, and had met and conversed with
Gautama, from whom they had received several of his
hairs ; but the first notice of the country which can be
considered as historical is given in the Sinhalese Mahaw-
anso, which speaks of the mission of Sono and Uttaro,
sent by the third Buddhist Council (held in 241 B c.) to
Savarna-bhoo-mee to spread the Buddhist faith in its
purity. It seems clear that the delta of the Irawadi was

76 ashI: pyee.

not exempt from the almost 'religious war* which pre-
vailed between the followers of the Brahmanic and
Buddhistic faiths, the victory eventually passing to the
one body in India and to the other in Burma. Here the
differences lasted for several hundreds of years, until about
the eud of the eighth century, the Buddhists being
recruited in the meanwhile by the arrival of their co-
religionists expelled from India. One of the results of
these religious differences was the foundation of the city
of Pegu in 573 a.d. by Tha-ma-la and Nee-ma-la, sons of
the King of Tha-htoon by a mother of Naga descent, who
were excluded from the throne of their father." It is
said that Martaban was now founded. *' The country
was unsuccessfully invaded in 590 a.d. by the King of
Bij-ja-na-ga-ran {Vizianagram'^). Thirteen kings fol-
lowed between this period and 746 a.d., and by this
time the kingdom had been much extended (from the
Arakan mountains on the west to the Salweenon the east)."
** The Buddhist religion was not generally accepted in
the country, and the tenth King of Pegu, Poon-na-ree-ka
{Brahman heart), and more especially his son and successor
Tek-tha, appears to have been at least inclined towards
Hindu traditions." There is a great hiatus in the history
of Pegu between the death of Tek-tha and the year
1060 A.D., "when Anaw-ra-hta, the King of Pagan, con-
quered the country, and it remained subject to the Burmans
for some two centuries." For more information regarding
early Pegu, the readers of the new British Burma Gazetteer
are referred to that highly distinguished and " learned and
patient investigator," Sir Arthur Phayre, whose history of

BRITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 77

Pegu, published in the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic
Society, is considered " by far the most trustworthy work
on the subject."* It is curious to think that in British
Burma's first Chief Commissioner, a greater than any of
the early Pegu kings should arise in our time — one of our
ow^n countrymen, destined to create the Pegu province ; or,
we may say, when all its parts were scattered by disorder
and anarchy and tyranny of the direst kind, to bring all
together again into an harmonious whole by crystallizing
the mineral anew, and consolidating British Burma.t

Rangoon (as has already been said), the capital of the

Pegu Province, and consequently of British Burma, some

twenty or twenty-five miles from the sea — the future

Liverpool or Glasgow of Chin-India — before uttering a

word about its commerce, may be considered worthy of

brief mention as to the origin of the name. In the early

Talaing histories it has the name of Dagon, originally

that of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda, erected on the summit of

the laterite formation before mentioned after the burial

therein, by Poo and Ta-paw, of " some of Gautama's

hairs from the Buddha himself" Afterwards, we read, in

the wars which took place between the kings of Pegu and

of Burma, Dagon often changed hands ; and when at last,

in 1763, *' the Burman Aloung-bhoora (Alompra) drove

out the Talaing garrison of Ava, then the Burman capital,

and eventually conquered the Talaing kingdom, he came

down to Dagon, repaired — and thus, to a certain extent,

to Peguan feelings desecrated — the great Shw6 Dagon

* British Burma Gazetteer, pp. 637-538 (note).
t Our Burmese Wars, dtc, p. 351.

78 ASHi PYEE.

Pagoda, almost refounded the town, and re-named it Ran-
Koon (* the end of the war,' from Ran war, and Koon or
Goon, * finished, exhausted ') or Rangoon, the name it
has ever since home, and made it the seat of the Viceroyalty
which he established." In the last decade of the eighteenth
century, the English obtained leave to establish a factory
in Rangoon, surrounding it by a brick wall, and hoisting
the British colours.

Next, the etymology of Dagon, which word we read is
derived from the Taking " Takoon," which signifies " a
tree or log lying athwart " — alluded to in a legend connected
with the foundation — " and which has been corrupted into
Dagon,* or Dagun in Burmese. The word ' Shwe,* or
* golden,' is a Burmese translation of the original Talaing
word prefixed to Takoon. It is now used generally as a
term indicative of excellence." It is especially used with
all connected with the Golden Foot, or Majesty of Ava, as
I have explained elsewhere.

From this point we may pass on to the Irawadi
the grand artery of Burma, and the constant feeder
of Rangoon with the commerce and wealth of the
upper country, south-west China, and the various States
around and to the northward of Mandalay, the Burman
capital, now so well-known to the British merchants of
Rangoon, and made famous by deeds of dreadful note.
With such a magnificent highway as the Irawadi, with its
many mouths, aided by the other main rivers, the Hlaing
or Rangoon, the Pegu, the Sittang, and the Beling, it may
be said that there is no limit to the progress of commerce
* The place was called in the Moon (or Mon) language "Dagon."

BRITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 79

in Burma. The Irawadi flows for about 800 miles before
reaching the British possessions, through which it runs
for 240 miles more. " It is navigable for river steamers as
far as Bhamo, 600 miles beyond the British frontier."
The velocity of its waters, when the river is full, is said to
be five miles an hour. General Fytche informs us that
" Colonel Yule, from facts collected by him, assumes that
the Irawadi takes its rise in the lofty Langtam range of
the Himalayas, whose peaks, covered with perpetual snow,
separate the valleys inhabited by the Shan race of
Khamtis from the head waters of the sacred Brahmaputra."*
But the sources of this principal river in Upper and
British Burma, which traverses the Pegu division from
north to south, have never been explored, though several
praiseworthy attempts have been made. The most reliable
information I have seen on the subject is with reference to
the attempt made in 1827 by Lieutenants Wilcox and
Burlton, and more recent explorers, that it has been
shown, '^ as conclusively as can be shown, until the river
is traced to its source, that it rises in the southern slopes
of the Pat Koi mountains, one branch in 28° N. latitude,
and 97° 30' E. longitude, and another in the same
mountains a few days journey further eastward ; the two,
that to the west called by the Burmese Myit-gyee, or
* Large river,' and that to the east Myit-nge or * Small
river,' uniting to form the Irawadi in about 26° N.
latitude."t

* Burma, Past and Present, vol. i. p. 268.

t Captain Hannay fixed the junction in 26°. See also British
Burma Gazetteer, p. 207, vol. ii.

80 ashI; pyee.

It is interesting to note, with reference to Henzada, a
large district in the Pegu division, covering an area of
upwards of 4,000 square miles, " in the valley of the
Irawadi, at the head of the delta, and lying on both hanks
of that river," that nearly all the large towns are on the
right bank of the Irawadi, though many important places
are in Tharawadi, that is the country east of the nver.
Here, however, "the great extent of the annual inundations
and the smaller extent of country fitted for the cultivation
of rice, the great staple produce of the province, though
perhaps favourable to the existence of numerous small
villages, retard the formation of the large trading towns,
and nearly all large towns in this district owe their magni-
tude, if not their very existence, to the trade in the
products of the surrounding country." Again, "the large
number of the Henzada villages and hamlets are along the
banks of the Irawadi, and on the banks of the tributary
streams to the west of that river. It may safely be asserted
that the embankments along the Irawadi, which protect
such an extensive tract of fertile rice country from the
inundations to which it was annually subject, will not
only produce a steady increase in the size of villages now
existing and occupied by cultivators of the neighbouring
plains, but will cause the establishment of many new ones
in spots hitherto waste, and waiting only for relief from the
superabundant waters of the river, and for labour to
become valuable and fruitful fields " The breadth of the
Irawadi varies from one to two, three, and even four or
five miles ; and of this noble river, which intersects the
Burman dominions, it has been well said — " Like the Nile

BEITISH AND UPPEB BUEMA, AND W. CHINA. 81

and the Ganges, inundating the plains, it dispenseiS fertility
and abundance, while it affords an exteifsive inland
navigation quite through the country to the border of
China."^

Surely it is worth while knowing the etymology of such
a river as the Irawadi. On this point nothing whatever
was attempted regarding it in Our Burmese Wars and
Relations with Burma, although the Arabic wddif — a river
or stream — was cited, to show what seemed the more
correct spelling, or with one d only. A learned critic,
however, was down upon me for want of etymological
knowledge, informing the public at the same time, in the
most praiseworthy manner, that the author, in his **' want
of philological training," had " evidently do suspicion
that the whole word is a slight corruption of the
Sanskrit Airdvati, the feminine of the god Indra's
elephant." He was also kind enough to inform me of vati
meaning " like"; and that in the Punjab, the Ravee is also
a corruption of aira (moisture) vati—thQ t omitted for
the soft V. The critic, I found, was perfectly right. It is the
name given to Indra's elephant, and signifies " great
moisture " or water. Indra, in fact, answers to Zeus
(Jupiter), the heaven or sky, including the atmosphere,
the immediate source of rain; hence appropriate for a river.
As to Zeus, a distinguished Orientalist believes that the
original Greek word really referred to the material sky,
including the atmosphere; and Indra, in the Hindu
mythology, occupied the same position. Hindu etymology

* Account of the Burmese Empire.
t Our Burmese Wars^ d^c, p. 17.

82 ASHfe PYEB.

in a Buddhist country is easily explained, as, in addition
to facts already mentioned, the Buddhists and Hindus, of
course, had " the same original national beginning," and
the same mythology, just as Catholics and Protestants
equally acknowledge the Apostles and early Fathers of the
Church.

So much, then, for the name of Burma's noble river, and
for Indra, the Indian god of the *' invisible heavens," who
dwells in his celestial city, Amaravati, and who is considered
also the " governor of the Eastern portion of the world."*

* The character of Indra in itself is a wonderful mythological
study ; and strange it is that students in England give it so little
attention. In their great Indian Empire they have a mythology
quite equal to the Greek — in fact, the parent of nearly all others — in
which, as said elsewhere, are embedded " the fossilized skeletons of
the faith." Brahma and Sarasvati (like Abraham and Sara) ; Vishnui

Lakshmi (the Apollo and Venus) ; Siva and Parvati (or Kali)
Pluto and Proserpine — present a field in themselves for the most
i t cresting analogical investigation. And when their researches are
fini hed in the land of the Veda, they can step with advantage int

uore " silent land " of Buddha — ^in China or Burma.

83

CHAPTER IV.

BBITISH AND UPPER BURMA AND WESTERN CHINA.
{Continued.)

Let us now return to Eangoon, the grand emporium of
commerce in British Burma, where " the quick pulse of
gain " is ever on the alert, and where fortunes have been
made and lost — and doubtless are still — with amazing
rapidity.

Eice being the grand export of the Pegu province, it
may first be of interest to note the remarkable increase of
rice land under cultivation from 1868 to 1876, in spite of
occasional excessive inundation (very frequent before the
increase of embankments in 1862), in the Henzada district,
the township of which is on the right bank of the Irawadi.
In 1868 the cultivated area was 204,495 acres, and in 1876,
320,300 acres; or since the annexation of Pegu (1853),
there has been an increase in the total cultivated area of
nearly 250,000 acres, *' greater than the most sanguine
could have hoped for." It may also be remarked that the
cotton grown in this CHenzada) district is inferior to that
grown in the north, the produce being locally consumed.

6 •

84 ASH^ PTEE.

But rice, as already stated, is the chief commodity of the
Henzada district, which, situated at the head of the delta
of the Irawadi, and containing much fertile land for the
cultivation of this most useful grain, affords a ready
market for Kangoon and Bassein, " communication with
both being easy from the numerous creeks which intersect
the country."

In a country like Pegu, where there is a great sparseness
of population (accounted for elsewhere),* but which has
risen from a little more than a million, in a quarter of a
century, to about 3,000,000, it may be noted that, out of
the total (176,404) males in the Kangoon district in 1872
(the paucity of the Talaings being especially noticeable),
there were nearly 4,000 Christians, 600 Hindus, 300
Mahomedans, and 171,500 Buddhists. In 1878, the
capital had 91,600 inhabitants. The population of the
town of Kangoon for variety is, perhaps, unsurpassed in
the world — Burmans, Talaings (the Mon race), Karens,
Shans, Arakanese, Hindus, Mahomedans, Chinese,
Europeans, Eurasians, Americans, and others — in the census
year of 1872 giving a total of 98,700. The population is
now (1880} over 100,000; for, like the river traflfic between
Mandalay and Kangoon, since 1862, it may be said to have
gone on steadily increasing till 1878-79.

The principal articles manufactured in the Kangoon
district are salt, pottery, fish-paste (nga-pee), mats, and
silk, and cotton cloths ; all for local consumption, except
the pottery and nga-pee, which are exported, the latter to

* See Our Burmese Wars, cf c, p. 332.

BEITISH AND UPPEE BUEMA, AND W. CHINA. 85

Upper Burma. The salt is made during the hot weather,
along the sea-coast, and elsewhere by solar evaporation,
or by " boiling in iron or earthen pots, the iron yielding
the greater out-turn."

It is interesting to look back on the state of commerce
with the British settlements in India from 1802 to 1806.
Then the exportation of rice and of the precious metals
was strictly prohibited, and the total impoits exceeded the
total exports by Ks. 1,856,638. The imported articles in
the year of Trafalgar (1805), were tin, wine, woollens,
piece-goods, opium, grain, rum, tin and plated ware, iron-
mongery, canvas, &c., giving a total value, including treasure
(Ks. 19,579), of Ks. 245,232. The articles of export were
timber, pepper, orpiment, coir-rope, ponies, cardamoms,
stick-lac, wax, sundries, and treasure.

From 1813-14 to 1820-21, the returns of trade between
Rangoon and Calcutta give the principal imports as piece-
goods, raw silk, cotton, indigo, saltpetre, sugar, rice, pepper,
and opium. At the .close of the first war (1826), Arakan
became a rice-granary of immense importance, in a great
measure obviating the import of rice from Calcutta. After
the second Burmese war (1862-53), Pegu became British
territory. From 1826 to 1852, among the annual number
of arrivals and departures, there were only twenty English
vessels from 100 to 1,000 tons. In 1855, the total tonnage
of all vessels, import and export, amounted to upwards of
270,000 tons, which in nine years (1863-64), became
doubled,* and has been increasing in an astonishing propor-

* See Our Burmese Wars, dec, p. 346. — In 1875-76, vessels cleared at
the ports of the province amounted to 2,551, of 1,164,616 tons burthen.

86 ASHfe PYEE.

tion ever since. No wonder it has been said that *'when
Pegu passed to the^English trade began to improve, and
has proceeded with vast strides." When we come to con-
sider that the value of the export and import trade, ex-
cluding treasure, in 1877-78 amounted to Ks. 81,920,257,
as compared with Es. 21,310,561 in 1858-59,* we must
unhesitatingly declare that such a steady prosperity as this
is unparalled in the history of British connection with the
East. These facts alone are well worthy of attention from
the lords of British Commerce, and show what might be
done were there no monopolizing obstructiveness of a Bur-
mese Golden-Footed monarch to be encountered. If Free
Trade, wandering up and down the world, should ever seek
a fitting temple to dwell in, perhaps avoiding her *' mutual
friend *^ Eeciprocity, and attended by the honoured shade of
Richard Cobden — all regal obstructives being swept aside —
she will not be able to do better, while waiting for the
golden edifice, than to pitch her tent in Chin-India Upper
Burma would afford her triumphs which she could not gain
elsewhere, and certainly in no other portion of our Eastern
Empire.

The commerce of British Burma is carried on chiefly
with Great Britain, the three Presidencies of India, the
Straits, Ceylon, and the Nicobars. The ports are Rangoon,
Maulmain> Akyab, Tavoy, Mergui, Bassein, Kyook
Phyoo, and Cheduba, — certainly no want of fine harbours
for trade. The articles of import and export before
the Burmese wars, have already been mentioned. The

* In 1868-69, the figures were :— Imports, Es. 23,464,602; and
exports Es.;19,540,651, giving a total of Es. 43,005,153.

BRITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 87

former, after the second war, consisted chiefly of cotton
goods, hardware, machinery, coal, books, provisions, wool-
len goods, silks, canvas, wines, drugs, dyes, spices, fruits,
sugar, arms, and carriages. The exports have principally
been rice, timber, petroleum, hides, ivory, cotton, grain, and
ponies. To this may be added jewellery and precious
stones, also a goodly list of useful sundries. In trade with
Burma, as a rule, the imports have generally exceeded the
exports, although such was very far from being the case in
1877-78,* and in a few other years. In a year of famine
in India, or elsewhere, the exports from Eangoon would
probably exceed the imports. General Fytche, in his
Burma Past and Present, remarks, after the astonishing
but truthful statement that " if the commerce of India bore
the same proportion to population" (as British Burma)
"it would be ten times greater than it is — that is to say, it
"would be about nine hundred and fifty millions, instead of
ninety-five," that British Burma also contrasts favourably
with India, in the value of the imports being much nearer
to that of the exports.f It is useful to bear in mind that,
some fifteen years ago, the annual value of the imports was
rather more than i62,000,000, and of the exports than
^£3,000,000. In 1875-76, the value of the sea-borne and
inland exports was £7,208,896, and imports £6.159,925,
"with a population a little over three millions, and a gross
rever^ue over two millions sterling.

On Pegu passing to the English, the whole Burmese

♦ In this year the imports were Rs. 37,777,242 ; and the exports
44,143,015 ; and in 1864-65, the annual value of the exports wa s
;£3,000,000, against only £2,000,000 of imports.

t Vol. i. pp. 320-21.

88 • ASHfe PYEE.

customs system changed, and restrictions on importation
and exportation were removed, and the interior of the
country gradually developed. Rangoon soon became the
third port in India. *' Cotton piece-goods, salt, and
various other articles have poured in, whilst rice has more
than taken the place of timber, and cutch, hides, horns, and
petroleum have added to the export trade."

It may also be remarked, with reference to the various
imports and exports, that some of the articles merely *' pass
through the country ; candles, cotton-twist, cotton piece-
goods, earthenware and porcelain, glass, glass-ware, &c.,
find their way direct into Upper Burma, whilst caoutchouc,
raw cotton, gums and resins, hides, horn, ivory, lac, mineral
oils, spices, tobacco, and wood, are partly, and jade is
entirely, drawn from that country." The duty levied, of
course, depends upon the tariff.*

A great season in Rangoon — perhaps the greatest — is
the rice season, which commences in January and ends in
May ; but there are sales all the year round. The *' prices
of rice in the husk at the mills in Rangoon " during seven
years, varied, per 100 baskets, from 1872 to 1878, from
January to October, from 55 to 100 and 200 rupees; and
if any of us should think of doing a rice business
at Rangoon, it may be stated that *' each firm has its
one or more brokers, and several buyers; the former, as
a rule, residing on the mill premises t In its strictest

• For King Theebau's Tariff, see Our Burmese Wars, dtc, p. 414.

t In the present year (1880) the Burma rice trade is in a most
flourishing state. In August the exports exceeded over a lakh
(£10,000) those of 1879. Akyab, Bassein, and Kangoon, supply large
quantities of rice to foreign coimtries.

BEITISH AND UPPEE BUEMA, AND W. CHINA. 89

sense, Nunquam Vormio may be considered a most appro-
priate motto for Bangoon, destined, as I have already
said, to be the Liverpool or Glasgow of Chin-India.

I shall now make a few remarks on the trade in esse with
south-western China, which I shall preface with a few
words on the treaties we concluded with Upper Burma in
1862 and in 1867. By the treaty of 1862, concluded by
Sir Arthur (then Colonel) Phayre, trade in and through
Upper Burma was *' freely thrown open to British enter-
prise ; " and again, the Bhamo trade route (to Yunnan, in
south-western China), was to be explored, " under the
treaty of 1862.* ^ The King of Burma would not consent
to a "joint mission,'"' as desired by the Indian Government.
Perhaps the vassal, Golden-Foot, — although "Lord of Earth
and Air," — thought he might offend his Chinese Lord, the
*' Vicegerent of all under Heaven," by so doing ; but if any
man could have obtained the wishes of our Government at
this time, beyond all question that man was the First Chief
Commissioner of British Burma. And this leads me to
remark that I committed an error, or rather inadvertence,
in my review of Dr. Anderson's interesting work. From
Mandalay to Momien,\ where I say that " there was
evidently something wrong in the framing of the treaty of
1862." I should have written that there was evidently
considerable difficulty about the "joint mission,'' as re-
garding trade with south-western China, through Upper
Burma, in the endeavour to bring the treaty of 1862 to the
successful issue desired by the Indian Government.

* See Dr. Anderson's I<rom, Mandalay to Momien, p. 6.
t Our Burmese Wars, dx., p. 357.

90 ABHfj PYEE.

As has been remarked, then, the treaty of 1862
paved the way for the well-known mission or expedition
under Major Sladen, at the commencement of 1H68, to
explore the trade-routes to China via Bhamo, (consequent
on the treaty, under General Fytche, of 1867), which, not-
withstanding the credit attached to the officers concerned,
led to no useful or practical results. " Possibly," it has
been said, " King Mengdon was not displeased at our want
of success ; " but, strange enough, provoking and frequently
petty obstructions have in some way or other surrounded
British exertions with regard to commerce in Upper
Burma, ever since 1868 ; and, when Mengdon died, towards
the end of 1878, his eccentric son Theebau's dissipated
and murderous career began, as if to make the chance of
sound friendly relations with the British, in the interests of
commerce and civilisation, more distant than ever.* And,
in my humble opinion, after the withdrawal of our Resident
from Mandalay, to make a treaty — commercial or other-
wise— with such a modern Nero, would be highly impolitic,
or the very worst thing we could do. Lord Dalhousie, in
reviewing his administration, in the famous Minute of 28th
February 1856, writes: ''When the Honourable Court
recalls to mind that from the very first, in 1852, I depre-
cated the reconstruction of any treaty relations with the
Court of Ava at all, it will not be surprised to find me add,
that I still consider peace with Ava as even more likely to
be maintained in the absence of all commercial or friendly
treaties, than if those conventions had been renewed as

* See article on the " Critical State of Burmese Affairs." — Allen's
Indian Mail, February 26th, 1880, p. 180.

BEITISH AND UPPEE BUEMA, AND W. CHINA. 91

before/' * Notwithstanding such prudent advice from a
master-mind, we have since made treaties with Burma ;
and, for the sake of history, to be just and impartial, it
must be said, and I grieve to write it, that in these matters
our policy towards the Golden Foot has not always been
in the right direction. For instance, in the treaty of 1867,
we first ratified it, saying not a word about the *' arms,'*
and then repudiated the arrangement! (See Note I.) In
future, then, very great care should be taken in making
treaties with Oriental potentates. Let us rather have no
treaties at all with them ; it is impossible for the Oriental
mind to thoroughly understand the solemn nature of a
treaty.

Seven or eight years ago, while writing on the subject of
trade with south-western China, 1 remarked: — "Russia
is evidently busy, and anxious to conclude other com-
mercial treaties besides those with the chiefs of Khokand,
Bokhara, and Yarkand, and to become the aggressor else-
where than in Khiva, to which all eyes are at present
turned; It has been well said, that if Russia be baffled
this year (1873), she will succeed at last as surely as in

* The first portion of the paragraph containing the above remark-
able extract is also well worthy of notice at the present time : —
" Although the mission which lately proceeded to the Court of Ava
(in 1855, under Sir Arthur Phayre), with the primary object of
reciprocating the friendly feeling which the King of Ava had
previously shown, by voluntarily despatching an embassy to the
Governor-General of India, has brought back with it no treaty of
alliance or of commerce, I nevertheless regard the continuance of
peace between the States as being not less secure than the most
formal instrument could have made it." See also Our Burmese WarSy
dc, pp. 322-24, and 379.

92 ASHfe PYEE,

C/ircassia. . . . The persevering Russians are hardly in
favour at present in China. Russian merchants who had
advanced have been ordered back to Mongolia ; and
the Chinese export trade is almost entirely in English
hands. ... It is pleasing to read that English Agents
have been in China, persuading the Chinese Govern-
ment of the special importance of its western provinces,
which, if the information be correct, augurs well for
any attempt by Great Britain to open trade through
Burma, or from Assam, with south-western China.
There we are free from troubles, while China continues
suspicious of the designs of Russia, and we determine
that the great aggressive power shall not come to the
southward."*

In February 1880, we read of the Russian Government
(with reference to a treaty in which Russia engaged
to provision Chinese troops while operating against Kash-
gar rebels) having prohibited commercial caravans from
crossing the Siberian frontier into Chinese Mongolia. A
recent treaty concluded by the Chinese Ambassador
at St. Petersburg was " too one-sided a document ''
to be approved at Pekin. The Chinese refusal to
ratify the draft was answered by the discontinuance of
commercial relations on the confines of the two empires.
Russia had now forbidden her subjects to sell provender
to the Chinese commanders; and so a diplomatic and com-
mercial estrangement was thought to be complete.f This

• See the author's Notes on Opening Trade with South-Western
China, 1873.

t See Berlin Correspondent of the Standard, February 12th, 1880

BEITISH AND UPPER BUEMA, AND W. CHINA. 98

was probably considered, on the whole, good news for
British commercial interests in Eastern Asia, as China might
now turn, with more confidence than ever, to Great Britain,
especially after our diplomatic victory over her wily
adversary at Cabul; and the rising young Chinese mon-
arch might just think of turning his attention to British
prosperity and influence in Burma, with the view of such
being extended to south-west China. And so would Russia
be checkmated in nearly every corner of the East.

As I have remarked elsewhere, at Bhamo, where Burmese
and Chinese influences commingle, we hope yet to see — and
the Chambers of Commerce fully indulge in such a hope,
notwithstanding the obstacles which have gone before — an
exchange-mart for the silk, copper, gold, drugs, and textile
fabrics of western China, and for British and Burmese staples.

A " peripatetic " writer in the Times of India, some nine
years ago, remarked with great force : '* The road to China
for us is through Upper Burma or Burma Proper. Through
Bhamo the richest side of China can be tapped. The most
romantic dreams of the most sanguine have never come up
to the reality which may reasonably be expected, as soon
as there is a clear passage for trade from Yunnan or Hunan
to Rangoon." Rangoon will become the Bombay of the
Chinese and Burman empires, and something more."

The local advantages of Upper Burma in reference ta
trade with western China, were forcibly brought forward
during the visit of the Burmese Embassy to England in
1872. The Council of the ever-zealous Halifax Chamber
of Commerce gave the Envoy an extraordinary welcome,
stating in their address to His Excellency that the

94 ASH^ PYEE.

" Council, having always considered the rich products and
the fertile lands of Burma as aJ0Fording great inducements to
the spread of commerce and agriculture, have from time to
time carefully considered the many projected trade routes
through the possessions of His Majesty the King, to open
up a commercial highway to the unlimited resources of
western China." In his reply, " the Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary from His Majesty the King
of Burma" said, with a degree of common-sense not always
found in Orientals: "In reference to the question of trade
routes through Burma to western China, I need merely
repeat what I have said in other places, that His Majesty
the King of Burma is most anxious to promote, by every
means in his power, any matured and feasible plan which
has this object in view. But in regard to the route to
which you advert, commonly known as Captain Sprye's
route, I would remark that as the line passes through an
insignificant portion of the King of Burma's territory, the
responsibility of opening it out cannot fairly be laid upon
His Majesty.*'"^ Although the proverbial golden silence is
here observed regarding the route from Mandalay to Mo-
mien, via Bhamo, it is not difficult to see that the Envoy
thought that the only feasible route, which it most probably
is. Certainly, judging from the past, and the troubles we
have experienced in our various missions of exploration, the
route from Assam to Sze-Chuen — strongly advocated by

• Eleventh Annual Report of the Chamber of Commerce for Halifax
and District, 1872, p. 12.— See also Our Burmese Wars, dtc, p. 364,
where there is also a note on the deputation from the Associated
Chambers of Commerce, February 28th, 1873, to the Secretary of
State for India.

BBITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 95

Sir George Balfour — also deserves serious attention from the
Imperial Government and the merchants of England. Of
the route from Assam (Sudiya) to Sze-Ohuen, he writes :
" We then join a part of China singularly free from troubles.
A dense population and great resources in minerals, and
very much in want of the tea which Assam can supply.'*
And again : " I admit that in minerals Yunnan is rich, but
in population very scanty, say from sixty to 100 per square
mile, whereas Sze-Chuen has from 200 to 250, and is close
to Sudiya,* in Assam." The population of Yunnan, there-
fore, would appear to come nearer to that of Chin- India
generally, where, in a surface of 700,000 square miles,
there are only about thirty-six persons to every square
mile ; while Sze-Chuen — taking Sir George's figures —
approximates to Great Britain with, say, 240. British and
Upper Burma both sadly require population. In the event
of our one day being compelled to possess the country to
the northward of Pegu, what a boon it would be to our
Eastern Empire if there was a steady emigration into our new
conquest from Sze-Chuen of some 2,000,000 people ! What
an impetus it would give to trade and mining operations in
Upper Burma ; while if Pegu only had another two millions
of peaceful inhabitants, from the well-disposed trading
Shans, and other useful tribes, as remarked in my former
work,t Southern Burma alone would have nearly as large a
commerce as a fourth of that of the whole of India !

* Sudiya lies towards the extreme north-east of Upper Assam, or
say, direct north-east from Rungpore, while Sze-Chuen lies north and
north-east of Yunnan, and east of Sudiya.

t Our Burmese Wars, d^c, p. 352. For the value of Upper Burma,
see page 369.

96 ASHt PYEE.

Really, the commerce of this portion of our Eastern
Empire deserves the most serious attention of Englishmen,
who have always prided themselves on being the leading
merchants of the world. In commercial importance, in ray
humble opinion, there is no other Eastern question can
approach it.

It is now upwards of eight years since the question of
trade with south-western China was prominently brought
before the British public. The local advantages of a route
through Upper Burma, via Bhamo, were then strongly
insisted on ; and, in addition to other signs of a growing
interest in the project, a valuable paper was read before the
Society of Arts on the subject. It was then considered
that the means of turning " the stream of life and commerce
away from the old route by the Straits of Malacca and the
Chinese Sea, in a new direction, as well as a better and
more secure one,'' must first be found in easy steam com-
munication ; and then, with Burma as the highway. Great
Britain and India would have no difficulty in tapping the
resources of south-western China, and also other adjacent
States. Canals and roads would come after, and so
would railways; but, somehow or other, the subject
for a time lost its interest. Now it should be revived
ten-fold, not only on account of the continued prosperity
of Pegu, or British Burma, but from its becoming toler-
ably apparent, by the state of the political barometer in
the East, that the days of Golden-Foot rule at Man-
dalay are numbered. At the time above-mentioned, our
Government had only contemplated making a railway
from Kangoon to Prome. Now, that is finished, and

BEITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 97

the snort of the iron horse should go bravely on to the
northward ! *

With reference to the Burmese Embassy to England,
some eight years ago, I have already referred to Captain
Sprye's route to south-western China. An Edinburgh
Reviewer, in a most interesting article on the " Trade
Routes to Western China,"t writes: "His project aimed
at connecting the port of Rangoon on the Irawadi with
Esmok, a Chinese town in the extreme south of Yunnan,
by means of a tramway which should be carried diagonally
across Pegu and Burma, passing by the town of Shwe-
gyeen, on the river Sal wen [The reviewer here is in error ;
it should be the Sittang], and thence proceeding to its
terminus, at what the projector believed to be an important
entrepot of Chinese trade." But, as it turned out, this
Esmok was in reality no centre of commerce — except for
some good tea — but a mere frontier post on the verge of
the Chinese dominions ; *' and that the route by which it
was proposed to reach this point abounded in well-nigh
insuperable obstacles." It is al)out twenty years since the
Chambers of Commerce first took up the idea of this route,
•which, though far from comparable with that via Bhamo
(the emporium of commerce between Burma and Yunnan),
to which attention was first called by Dr. Williams, is,
nevertheless, honourably associated with the name of
Captain Sprye, who did his utmost to advocate the opening

*. The railway, connecting Rangoon and Prome — 163 miles — ^was
opined for traffic May 1st, 1877. See Our Burmese Wars, d^c,
p. 388 (note).

t Edinburgh Review, No. 280, 1873, p. 300.

7

98 ASHt PYEE.

of trade with Western China. In time to come, prohably
both routes, and others that at present we know not of, will
be available for capitalists from England and India. Trading
centres will multiply in Burma and south-western China ;
and France, in Cochin-China and Tonquin {See Note II.),
jealous of our vast power and resources from the possession
of Burma, will, sphynx-like, with earnest eyes be looking
on at China's old exclusive propensities giving way, till at
length, through the force of our transcendent commercial
power, in a future century all European nations will turn
their eyes to Chin-India, where took place the first step
towards bringing 400,000,000 of the Celestial Empire, at
John Chinaman's own request, under the grand Imperial sway
of England. Four hundred millions — an additional third of
the human race — thrown on our hands ! What shall we do
with them ? Could there possibly be a more interesting
question ? Home Rule will then have died a natural death.
And the Englishman, too, will wonder how, towards the
end of the nineteenth century, western and central Asia
occupied so much, and eastern Asia so little, of our atten-
tion. The keen Chinaman, and especially the ever-busy
Shan, as far as we are concerned, are at present far too little
known among us. Tasteful Shan ladies, with their love of
jewellery and elegance of design, may yet give a fashion to
Belgravia ; and the Shans being famous workers in straw,
may yet produce hats for the Park rivalling the Tuscan in
quality, and in shape that of England's far-famed beautiful
Duchess. Our blacksmiths may yet take a lesson from the
Shans in the forging of a sword " from iron brought from
Yunnan," and British merchants will be delighted to observe

BEITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND W. CHINA. 99

that " among the arts in which this self-sufficing people
are proficient is that of manufacturing cotton cloths." *

Of course the concurrent commercial interests of British
and Upper Burma and China are also those of India and
England ; and when western China is really opened up to
British enterprise, it will prohahly be one of the greatest
boons which commerce ever received. The force of
civilisation, if not war, must eventually knock the Golden
Foot entirely out of the way. Our present relations with
Upper Burma are in a very unsatisfactory condition ; and
** the events of the last few years have produced coolness
and distrust between the British and Burmese Govern-
ments. The violence," continues an admirable critic on
the situation, " offered to the exploring-party to Yunnan,
under Colonel Sladen, the determined attack led on that
by Colonel Browne, the murder of Mr. Margary in Chinese
territory, &c., have all contributed to widen the breach,
which has ended in the withdrawal of the British Kesident."
But, on the whole, he thinks that the occupation of Upper
Burma — with an area of not less than 130,000 square
miles, including the tributary Shan states, and numerous
wild and troublesome tribes — " would involve difficulties
which it is not desirable, except from dire necessity, to
encounter. If we can have a free right of way through
for trade with China, with the good- will both of Burma and
China, that will be far better for British material interests
and British honour than the violent act of annexation."t

* Edinburgh Review, No. 280, p. 313. — " Trade Routes to Western
China."

t The Athenaum, No. 2729, February l^th, 1880, p. 212.

7 *

100 ASHfe PYEE.

It is clear that something decided must soon he done ; for
Commerce is a fearful sufferer hy the present state of
Burmese affairs. Even the few manufacturers of Mandalay
have fled. The silk clothes and silver-work are no more.
Lead recently circulated for copper ; and the State lotteries
have added to the ruin of the country.

The concurrent commercial advantages of India and
Burma hecome more and more fixed on the mind when we
compare the two countries. In a Eeview of the Trade of
British India with other countries, for 1878-79,* we find it
stated that " although India possesses a long coast-line of
over 9,000 miles, and ahout 300 harbours, the foreign
trade of the empire is practically confined to the five ports,
which are the capitals of the five great littoral provinces,
viz. Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Rangoon, and Kurrachee,
all of which, excepting Madras, are excellently situated as
central marts for the distribution of articles of commerce.
To Rangoon naturally flow by the Irawadi, all the pro-
ducts of Upper Burma and of Pegu, the most valuable of
our possessions in the Burmese peninsula ; while the rail-
way already open (for 163 miles) between Rangoon and
Prome, offers further facilities for the conveyance of
merchandise.^' And it is still more interesting to find that
intelligent Englishmen are gradually becoming alive to
the fact that the most thriving place, commercially, in the
Indian (or Eastern) Empire, considered relatively to its
size, is Rangoon. And there can be no doubt that British

* By J. E. O'Connor, Calcutta, 1879. A most interesting paper for
mercantile men to read, and which is quoted at considerable length in
The Bntish Mail, March 1st, 1880.

BEITISH AND UPPER BURMA, AND '"V^^. /CHIKA:.:' "lOJ'

Burma, even at present, is the most prosperous pro-
vince in the Empire, with a people free from religious
and caste prejudices, more fond of "personal comfort and
adornment " than either Hindus or Mahomedans, and con-
sequently more ready and eager in the pursuit of civilised
commerce than their more apathetic neighbours.

It is fairly well known that much of the foreign trade of
India is shared between England and China. Still the
proportion of the trade carried on directly with England is
not increasing, but slowly the reverse. At present, Indian
trade with China is practically confined to the opium trade.
What a much more noble trade would that be coming from
the profitable manufacture of cotton in western China, and
its dispatch, via Rangoon, to India ! With the expert
Chinese, such manufacture, aided by the other valuable
mercantile productions of Yunnan and Sze-Chuen, would
probably pay well in the end ; and it has been truly said
that the Chinese are better adapted for profitable cotton
manufacture than the people of India. China is at present
compelled to import cotton, in which India has the
advantage of the flowery land. In the omnipotent article
of cotton, then, until China be compelled to grow more,
there is ample room for the spinnings of India, Burma, and
Manchester ; and no greater impetus could be given to this
most useful trade (or branch of industry), and the
furthering of general acute and bold commercial speculation
in other commodities throughout eastern Asia, than would
be derived from opening up, through northern Burma, the
long neglected provinces of south-western China. Such a
consummation would be the first grand wedge driven into

102/; ASHfe PYEE.

the mighty mass of Chinese or Mongolian seclusion, making
a rent which, commencing with our humble conquests of
Arakan, Tenasserim, and Pegu, might eventually bring
400,000,000 of the human family under the direct civilising
influence and control of Great Britain.

103

CHAPTEE V.

DU HALDE ON TRADE WITH CHINA : AND HOW
EUSSIA GOT IN THE WEDGE.*

" What implement lacks he for war's career,
That grows on earth, or in its floods and mines,

Eighth sharer of the inhabitable sphere)
Whom Persia bows to, China ill confines,
And India's homage waits, when Albion's star declines 1 "
Campbell. — The Power of Russia.

Writing on the subject of the Chinese trade, Du Halde
forcibly asserts that the riches peculiar to each province,
and the facility of conveying merchandise by means of the
rivers and canals, " have rendered the domestic trade of

* Written in 1873-74. Regarding the famous Du Halde, it may be
stated that this eminent Jesuit missionary and traveller flourished
early in the eighteenth century. The pages of Du Halde, in his great
work — full of important information concerning the south-western
and other provinces of China — are never tedious, and always
instructive. It is entitled A Description of the Empire of China and
Chinese Tartary, together with the Kingdoms of Korea and Tibet,
Containing the Geography and History {Natural as well as Civil) of those
Countries. From the French of P. J. B. Du Halde, Jesuit. The work is
dedicated to His Royal Highness Frederick Prince of Wales, and
consists of two enormous tomes, folios printed in London in 1738 and

104 ASH^ PYEE.

the Empire always very flourishing." He thinks the
foreign trade scarcely worth mentioning, for the excellent
reason that the Chinese, having all things necessary for
the support and pleasures of life among themselves, need
not seek them in the land of the stranger. When China
was governed by its own emperors, the ports were shut to
foreigners. The Tartars, when they became masters,
opened them up to all nations. To give a full account of
the Chinese trade, he speaks of the traffic carried on among
themselves and their neighbours, also of European com-
merce with China, which, early in the last century, was in
a very confined state, forming a remarkable contrast with
that of later years. Truly, in the old days of our acquain-
tance with the East, Civilisation was making a desperate
struggle to be born; for there can be no genuine civilisa-
tion where exclusiveness is paramount. The prospect
of affairs is brighter at the present time, and if commercial
men only assist the Government in the endeavour to better
trade and promote social intercourse in comparatively
unknown regions, we may, even in the nineteenth century,
hear of a British-Chinese Chamber of Commerce in Yunnan

1741 ; printed for Edward Cave at St. John's Gate — a portal leading
us to think of the early days of Dr. Johnson. Du Halde notices
particularly the matter of the commercial importance of Yunnan
and Sze-Chuen. After looking at these valuable provinces, the
present [writer thought it interesting to give some remarks on the
clever manner long ago adopted by Eussia in introducing the poli-
tical commercial wedge into China, founded on the pages of the
Ubiquitous and learned Jesuit. At the present time (1880-81) the
relations between Russia and China are of great importance to
Englishmen — more important even than a war being the Chinese
concession of opening the whole of their western frontier to Eussian
trade 1

DU HALDE ON TEADE WITH CHINA, ETC. 105

or Sze-Chuen. China, Japan, Burma, — what an interest-
ing study it will be for us, or for our children, to
watch in such remarkable countries the grand develop-
ment of Free Trade, brought about by the steady law of
progress. But, above all, as Pegu, or Lower Burma, is
ours, and well sustaining her rank among British provinces
in the East, let us consider that we are not utilising our
valuable and hard-won possession in Chin-India, while we
leave a stone unturned in the matter of farthering British
and Indian trade with Upper Burma and the south-
western provinces of China. While the Brahmapootra of
Assam, and any canals that may be cut, or lines of railway
that may yet run through that fertile province to near the
Chinese frontier, would greatly assist Indian trade, the
Chinese rivers, and the noble Irawadi (Burmese), with
convenient lines of railway as proposed, would soon, as we
have already hinted, make Rangoon the Liverpool of the
East. But we must utilise the possessions we have, more
than we do, if we would keep pace with the times and
increase our commerce abroad !

In Du Halde's time the inland trade of China was so
great, that the commerce of all Europe was not to be
compared with it ; the provinces were like so many
kingdoms, communicating to each other their wealth and
produce.

Thus the several inhabitants became united among
themselves, and plenty reigned in all the cities. Whatever
commodity one province lacked was readily supplied by
the other; and all these riches, readily conveyed from
place to place along the rivers, were sold in a very short

106 ASH^ PYEB.

time. For instance, we read of a dealer arriving in a
city, and in three or four days selling six thousand caps
"proper for the season."

The Mandarins themselves had their share in husiness,
and some of them put their money into the hands of
trustworthy merchants to improve it hy means of trade.

There was not any family, even the poorest, that could
not, with a little good management, find means to subsist
very easily by traffic. As a matter of course, like the old
pedlars of Europe, and the hawkers of Anglo-India, the
Chinese have long been known to be addicted to over-
reaching ; but when the incredible crowds of people to be
seen in the generality of their cities, and at their fairs, are
considered, and all busy in buying or selling commodities,
dishonesty is not to be wondered at. It has for ages been
no worse among a certain class in the East than in the
West. The fact of trade flourishing in nearly all the
provinces of China makes the people negligent of foreign
trade. Such is the opinion of Du Halde. But it is not so
now. There is a growing liking for the trade of the
foreigner. Japan used to be the grandest centre of Chinese
trade ; and it is likely to become so more than ever if we
do not do more to encourage the Chinese. When merchants
went directly to Japan from the ports of China — Canton,
Amwi, or Ning-po — then they imported drugs, bark, white
sugar, buffalo, and cow-hides. They used to gain a
thousand per cent, by their sugar. Then there were also
numerous sorts of silks — satins, taffeties, and damasks, of
different colours, especially black ; some of those pieces
which cost much in China, fell considerably in Japan.

DU HALDE ON TEADE WITH CHINA, ETC. 107

Silken strings for instruments, sandal -wood (much prized
by the Japanese for its perfume), European cloth and
<5amlets were in great demand, and had a quick sale. By
this traffic the Chinese used to gain fifty per cent., while
the enterprising Dutch gained more.

The commodities, which the Chinese traders loaded their
vessels with in return, consisted of fine pearls — precious
according to beauty and size — by which they sometimes
gained a thousand per cent. ; red copper in bars and
wrought copper, of which there is a great sale in China;
sabre-blades, much esteemed ; flowered paper for fans ;
porcelain and japanned goods not equalled in any other
part of the world. The Chinese merchants also brought
very fine gold from Japan, and a metal called tomhak, by
which they gained fifty or sixty per cent, from the Dutch
at Batavia.

As it is now highly probable in these days of the
triumphs of Western civilisation in the East — of which
J ipan is so wonderful an example -that British trade will
flourish wherever properly opened and secured, the follow-
ing remark by Du Halde is significant : — " Could the
Europeans depend upon the honeoty of the Chinese, they
might easily carry on a trade with Japan by their means;
but they could not possibly do any good that way, unless
they bore them company, were masters of the cargo, and
had a sufficient force to prevent their insults."

The merchants of Amwi used to carry on a fair traffic
with Manilla, which if it could only now be diverted into
Indian, Burmese, or English channels, would be of great
benefit to us all. We read of the Chinese taking to that

108 ASHfe PTEE.

island a great deal of silk, striped and flowered satin of
different colours, embroidery, carpets, cushions, night-
gowns, silk-stockings, tea, china-ware, japanned works,
drugs, &c , by which the regular fifty per cent, was sure
to be made.

But the trade which the Chinese, in Du Halde's time,
carried on most regularly was that to Batavia, as they
found it " most easy and gainful " ^ They put to sea from
Canton, Amwi, and Ning-po, towards the eleventh moon
(in December), with such merchandise as green tea, china-
ware, leaf gold, and gold thread, drugs, copper, and
tutetmk (or tuttenague), a metal partaking of the nature of
tin and iron, and now well known among us in India and
in England.

The Chinese imported many luxuries and necessities
from Batavia. When we hear at the present time (1873-74)
of English hats, postage stamps, and compulsory education
being adopted in the rising island of Japan, we must not
forget that things European have long been in favour
there as in the Celestial Empire ; and that long before Du
Halde wrote, John Chinaman could be seen with his bale
of European cloth from Batavia, dwelling on its merits,
and selling it at a good price to the merchant of Japan.

It is strange to think that about 140 years ago, the
greatest trade the Chinese drove abroad was that with
Batavia They likewise went, but very seldom, to Achen,
Malacca, Ihor, Patana, Lijor (belonging to the king-
dom of Siam), to Cochin-China, &c. The trade carried
on at Ihor was the most easy and profitable.

The trade carried on in China by the Europeans is

DU HALDB ON TEADE WITH CHINA, ETC. 109

particularly remarked on by Du Halde. They had the
liberty of scarce any port except that of Canton, which was
open to them at certain times of the year. Not that they
went up as far as the city itself, but cast anchor at
Whang-pu, a place about four leagues short of it, in the
river, which there was so crowded with a multitude of
vessels that it looked " like a large wood." " Formerly,"
writes Du Halde, " cloths, chrystals, swords, clocks,
striking-watches, repeating-clocks, telescopes, looking-
glasses, drinking-glasses, &c. were carried thither. But
since the English come regularly every year, all these are
as cheap as in Europe ; and coral itself can hardly be sold
there any longer without loss : so that at present there is
no trading to advantage with anything but silver, in China,
where considerable profit may be made by purchasing gold,
which is a commodity there." Du Halde considers the
gold of China profitable. That to be met with at Canton
comes partly out of the provinces of China, and partly
from foreign countries, such as Cochin- Chin a and Japan,
and was nearly all melted over again in that city. The
gold of Cochin- China (which we have allowed the French
to get hold of) is described as " the most fine and pure
that can be." The Chinese divided their gold by alloys,
according to the custom of Europe. The other commodities
imported by Europeans were excellent drugs, several sorts
of tea, gold-thread, musk, precious stones, pearls, quick-
silver, &c. ; but the trade carried on in China by the
Europeans consisted chiefly in japanned- works, china-
ware, and silks, with regard to which the indefatigable
Jesuit deals at considerable length.

110 ashIi pyee.

But enough has now been said to show what the
Chinese trade was in Du Halde's time. Its vast increase
with India and England during the most palmy days of
the glorious old East India Company (in spite of unsuccess-
ful embassies), is a matter of history. Within the last
half-century we have had Chinese wars, and numerous
fortunes made by opium, silk, and tea ; but now, through
Assam and Burma, we can bring the Chinese piovinces
nearer to us than ever. Let us, then, be wise in time, and
do our utmost to make use of them. Let England, in
every conceivable way, boldly carry her civilisation and
commerce into Western China, and she will be sure to
succeed ; and, succeeding, there will be no grander check on
the wily schemes of Russia in Eastern or even Central Asia !

It is interesting at the present time, while the Mahome-
dans are receiving such severe checks* in the Celestial
Empire, to note the treatment suffered by the sons of
Islam, in the Chinese provinces 140 years ago. In a
description of the province of Kyang-Nan (in which is
Nankin), we come to a city called Whay-ngan-fu, not very
populous, *' in danger of being drowned " by the extra-
ordinary increase of water, the ground it stands on being

* Official news from China, received in India about the middle of
1873, confirmed the intelligence that Talifoo had fallen, and that the
Imperial Government had re-asserted its authority in the province of
Yunnan. The restoration of the whole province was shortly-
expected. The disorders in the adjoining province of "Kneichow,"
(Quey-chew?) with Yunnan forming one "government-general,"
were also coming to an end. A telegram also announced that
Momein had fallen, and that the Panthays had been completely
defeated. A Chinese General had reported^to^the King of Burma
that the capital of the Panthay (Mahomedan) co^try had fallen.

DU HALDE ON TKADE WITH CHINA, ETC. Ill

lower than the canal ; and two miles from it there is a
populous horough, the port of the river Whang-ho, where
the people are very busy. Here one of the great Man-
darins used to reside, named Tsong-ho, or Surveyor-General
of the RiverSyOv Grand Master of the Waters. "Beyond
the Whang-ho there are certain towns along the canal,
where the Mahomedans have unsuccessfully endeavoured
to draw a trade ; their mosques are very high, and not
built in the Chinese taste. Notwithstanding they have
been settled there for so many generations, they are still
considered as of foreign origin, and from time to time meet
with insults. A few years ago, at Hang-Kow, in the pro-
vince of Hu-quang, the people, provoked by the indiscreet
behaviour of some of them, destroyed the mosques which
they had built there, in spite of all the magistrates
could do."

The Christians, at and before this period, were very
differently treated, and French Jesuits, as well as Kussian
politicals, met with occasional high marks of favour and
attention. Russia did not receive Christianity till the
tenth century ; and in the middle of the fifteenth that
Empire was redeemed from its subjection to the Tartars.

With reference to China and Russia, two remarkable
events happened during the sixteenth century. In 1552,
St. Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, left Goa for
the purpose of converting the Chinese.* The country was
then very hostile to strangers ; but he persevered, and

* Jesuit missionaries first entered China about the middle of the
fifteenth century.

112 ASHi: PTEE.

died before he could reach the gates of Canton. It was
not till the end of the sixteenth century that Siberia was
added to the Russian Empire, which, till then, was bounded
by the limits of Europe. In 1671, Christianity got a firm
footing in China; and the zeal of Louis Quatorze, some
years later, fanned the flame for a time ; at which period,
also (16B3), P. Verbiest was travelling in western Tartary,
and eventually (1688) another famous Jesuit, P. Gerbillon,
who gives us some information about the Russians.

The wedge is now about to be introduced. A clever
French Jesuit missionary and a Russian envoy are
shortly to appear on the stage. It came about in this
way : The Russians having by degrees advanced to the
very frontiers of China, built a fort at the confluence of a
rivulet with the great river styled by the Tartars
Saghalian ula, and by the Chinese Ya long Kyang, The
Chinese Emperor's troops took and razed the fort ; but the
Russians rebuilt it in the following year. They were again
besieged, and being apprehensive of the consequences,
" desired the Emperor to end the war amicably, and to
appoint a place for holding a treaty." Their ofier was
kindly accepted ; and in the beginning of 1688, the nego-
tiation was entrusted to two grandees of the Chinese
Court, one a captain of the Life Guard and a Minister of
State, and the other a Commander of an Imperial
Standard, and uncle to the Emperor. In addition to
several Mandarins of diff'erent orders, they were to be
accompanied by Pere Thomas Pereyra (a Portuguese
Jesuit), and Gerbillon, who wrote a most admirable
account of the strange journey. We question if there is; a

DU HALDE ON TBADE WITH CHINA, ETC. 113

more curious chapter in literature than this account of
Gerbillon's travels in Western Tartary.

The Lamas met the Ambassadors. Among the former
was observed a young Lama, *' pretty handsome," writes
Gerbillon, ** very full-faced, and of so white and delicate a
complexion that I suspected it was a woman. He was at
the head of the troops, and distinguished by a hat with
a very large brim, made of I know not what materials,
all gilt, and running up to a point ; another of these
Lamas had likewise a gilt hat, but smaller, and quite flat
at the top." From such description we get an idea of
the origin of the gilt hats worn by the chosen troops
from Ava, who encountered us at Kangoon in the Second
Burmese War.

But we must not lose sight of the Chinese Ambassadors
about to meet the Russian. After beholding a " counter-
feit immortal," who drank Tartarian tea from a silver
pot carried by a Lama, meeting wild mules, observing the
Tartar way of hunting, and finding plenty of game
coming across wolves, yellow goats, and salt-mines, also
noble '* forest-trees," and eventually arriving at the Great
Wall, which Gerbillon describes, the Emperor is met on
his travels ; and His Majesty (travelling to and from
Pekin), is most attentive to the Jesuits.

On the 23rd of May (1688), an Envoy arrived at Court
from the Russian Plenipotentiaries, to name a place of
treaty upon the frontiers. This Russian Envoy behaved
with civility, and the French and Chinese Ambassadors
speak of his wit and judgment. He assured them " that
the Emperor had retaken all Hungary from the Turks,'

8

114 ashIj ptee.

and gave other exploits by the King of Poland and the
Czars of Eussia. He acted his part so admirably that the
Jesuits judged this Envoy to be either an Englishman or
a Dutchman, " for he had nothing of the Kussian pro-
nunciation." The Chinese Emperor, too, was pleased with
the conduct of the Russian Envoy, whose diplomacy, even
then, was becoming celebrated in Asia. The important
affair on hand was now in a fair way of progress. But
we have only space for a few notes on the limits of empire
proposed by the Russians while getting in the wedge. The
Russian Plenipotentiary proposed the 8aghalian Ula^ or
Black River (as it is called by the Tartars, and Ono?i Amur
by the Russians), for the boundary between the two
Empires, so that what lay to the north of it should belong
to Russia, and what lay south of it to the Empire of China.
The Chinese Ambassadors would not consent to this pro-
posal, because several populous cities and countries with
valuable mountains were on the north side of the river.
They assigned other limits, and only demanded that the
Russians should not pass beyond Nipcha, which they would
leave them '^for the conveniency of their trade to Chinas
The Russians answered this proposal with a laugh, that
they were very much obliged to China for leaving them
" a place which could not be disputed." The conferences
at length were broken off, the missionaries were allowed
to interfere, new limits were again assigned, and the
Russians again receded from their agreement, till eventually
we find both parties agreeing about the limits, but which,
up to the present day, appear never to have been definitely
settled.

DU HALDE ON TRADE WITH CHINA, ETC. 115

In the treaty of peace at this time, admirably drawn up
by the Chinese Ambassadors and the missionaries, it was
thought that nothing could influence the Kussians more
to an inviolable observance of peace than their knowing
that the Chinese swore it in the name of the true God,
which, by command of the Emperor, was done, and the
oath is given by Gerbillon, *' the better to show their genius."
This remarkable document commences : " The war which
has been carried on by the inhabitants of the frontiers of
the two empires of China and Eussia, and the battles
fought between them with great effusion of blood, dis-
turbing the peace and quiet of the people, being entirely
contrary to the Divine Will of Heaven, which is a friend to
the public tranquillity ; We, Ambassadors Extraordinary of
the two Empires," &c.

After such a treaty as that drawn up in 1689, we are
forced to go back to a question put by a Chinese noble to
the Jesuits, when discussing European affairs, regarding
what faults the Europeans could find in the Chinese. The
reply was ready, and is pretty much the general idea at the
present time : They passed in Europe for an ingenious
people, but very effeminate, and given to over-reaching in
trade. To the " very effeminate " we decidedly object ; and
if they were so then, they are, as a nation, not so now.
And it is clear that, at present, the Chinese would much
like to see the Eussians entirely clear of China, as they
were even in Du Halde's time anxious to get them out of
Mongolia.

China and Burma are the countries we should now look
to with an especial interest, at a time when we think

8 *

116 ASHt PYEE.

over the present Russian doings in, and the future of,
Central Asia. In St. Petersburg, very naturally, the con-
quest of Khiva and the other khanates is only considered
" the beginning of the end." The occupation of many
other places than Bokhara will become " a necessity " to
the " eighth sharer of the inhabitable sphere." But, con-
fining ourselves on the present occasion to the eastward,
we believe that the Russians are now aware of the rapidity
with which the Chinese are organising their army and navy
after the European fashion.. *' It is supposed," writes a
shrewd ' political' from Berlin, that with the troops and
vessels even now at the disposal of the Pekin Government,
it would be practicable for them to re-occupy the Amur
country ! " The wedge, therefore, would seem to be
loosening; and, through the lever of a well-organised
system of trade, we may soon see it rooted out altogether.

Burma and Yunnan, and Assam and Sze-chuen, must
now become known to the wealthy British merchants.
Evei vthing would seem to be in their favour. The depu-
tation, a few months back,* to the Duke of Argyll, from
no less than fifty Chambers of Commerce — in which the
wise and liberal advice of paying for a railway survey out
of the Imperial Treasury, or by a combination of the
merchants and manufacturers of this country, was given —
met with great encouragement ; then came another depu-
tation t to His Grace, regarding trade with Central Asia,
headed by General Eardley Wilmot, chairman of the
Council of the Society of Arts. And now (in the month

♦ February 28th, 1873. t April 25th

DU HALDB ON TEADE WITH CHINA, ETC. 117

of July), while we are writing these notes, railways for China
are announced. It is said to be in contemplation to pre-
sent the Emperor of China with locomotives, carriages, &c.,
so as to induce His Majesty to encourage a proposed short
line at Pekin, which will, of course, gradually be extended
to or near Nankin, Canton, Yunnan (to one of the most
convenient towns in the province) and Ava, when the noble
Irawadi could do the rest by light steamers to Rangoon. We
bad better take care for fear that extensive railway opera-
tions, once begun in the Celestial Empire — as if in imitation
of the Shah of Persia — -may be a reproach to us for our
delay. With all the appliances of science at our command,
what an infinitely better position we now hold for trading
with and civilising comparatively unknown countries than
in the days of the East India Company ! And yet it is no
exaggeration for anyone who reads the history of British
commerce to say, that while other nations were expending
their men and treasure to aid conquest, a single " Company
of merchants trading to the East Indies " effected very
much of what was necessary to make the East and West
known to each other. But for that glorious old Company —
deserving a monument if ever Company deserved one — with
its munificent spirit and fearless and able servants, how
slight our knowledge might now have been of Persia, India,
China, Burma, and Japan ! To Peter the Great belongs
the credit of having put in the most lasting wedge, or of
having created the power of Russia. To the East India
Company we must give the honour of having secured for
us the government of more than a sixth of the millions of
the globe.

118 ASHi PYEE.

Commerce promises soon to become a mightier herald of
peace than of war : but in neither commerce nor war, in
Central Asia, China, or Chin-India (Burma), must too
great dependence be had on treaties ; and the fewer we
make, or allow others to make, the better.* An able
Indian statesman recently remarked to us that, had we
made no treaties, we would ere now have turned the
Russians out of central Asia. He continued : " The
worst thing for us has been it being proclaimed in the East
that we are at peace with Russia. At peace with a pro-
gressive power ? Impossible ! "

We must progress also, with the light steamer and the
canal boat, and railway carriage, if not with the sword and
the gun. Commerce, with its battles of competition, is
one of the mightiest engines of the day " for all men's
good "

In conclusion ; by our speedily assisting the introduction
of works of utility, such as canals and railways, into
China, we shall have a mightier and sharper wedge than
Russia has yet been able to insert ; and when it is con-
sidered, as has been affirmed, that, with so many other
advantages already noted, the Chinese coal-fields extend
over 400,000 square miles (while the English cover only
12,000), what a splendid field is open to the tact and
enterprise of the conciliating British statesman and the
generous British merchant !

* It was rumoured that the French Government had entered
into a treaty (very advantageous) with Burma.

119

CHAPTEE VI.

THE FORESTS OF BURMA.

Many years ago a writer on Burma remarked that it was
impossible to enumerate the various kinds of trees which
in Ashe Pyee rear their heads in proud magnificence.
Of course, the chief noticed was the teak, which, although
rare in Hindustan, and hardly mentioned in any of our
accounts of Siam, " constitutes the principal glory of the
Burman forests.'* It was not without considerable interest
that the present writer found, in the Proceedings of the
Supreme Council in Calcutta (23rd December 1880), leave
asked to introduce a Bill " to amend the law relating to
forests, forest produce, and the duty leviable on timber in
British Burma." Mr. Aitchison, the Mover (late Chief
Commissioner of the Province), drew the attention of the
Council to the importance to the Government of forest
conservation in Burma, for the purpose of securing a per-
manent supply of teak for the requirements of India, and
for export to Europe and elsewhere. *' Notwithstanding
the enormous increase in the use of iron, and the high

120 ASHfe PYEE.

price of teak timber, the consumption of the latter had
steadily increased, and Eangoon and Maulmain were the
two principal ports of supply for India and the world."
A large quantity of teak was imported annually into
India from Burma. " In Java and the neighbouring
islands there were also teak forests, but the supply from
them was insignificant. The chief sources of supply were
Upper Burma, Siam, the Karen -nee country, and British
Burma." And the far larger portion of timber from these
forests " found its way to Rangoon and Maulmain, by the
Salween, Sittang, and Irawadi rivers." To give an idea of
the present increased supply, Mr. Aitchison compared the
statistics of the first eight years after the annexation of
Pegu, with the figures for the five years ending 1^78-79.
** The imports into Rangoon and Maulmain for the first
period were 85,056 tons of fifty cubic feet; for the last
period, 276,749 tons. The exports for the same periods
were 76,763 tons, as compared with 134,563 tons. During
the last-mentioned period, about two-thirds of the teak
exported from Eangoon and Maulmain were to Indian
ports, and of the imports, about four-fifths came from
forests beyond the British frontier."* One of the most
important of forest products was kutch. From reckless
felling the tree was scarce in British Burma. After, in a
most interesting manner, explaining the necessity for

• See also Sir Arthur Phayre on Teak Timber in the Supple-
mentary Chapter. It was originally intended that Chapter (.VI.
should be on the manufacture of paper from the bamboo. It waa
afterwards thought better to incorporate the subject with remarks
on Sir Arthur's paper on British Burma.

THE F0KEST3 OF BUEMA. 121

legislation, Mr. Aitchison concluded with the remark that
the Bill (which had been under consideration for five
years) " might appropriately be described as the Indian
Forest Act of 1878, with such changes as were necessary
to adapt it to the special circumstances of British Burma."

On the meeting of Council, 6th January 1881, it was
moved, and agreed to, that this Bill be referred to a Select
Committee.

From various notes compiled at the outbreak of the
Second Burmese War (1852), the following may be selected
as giving some idea of the importance attached, for a long
period, to the growth of teak in Burma : —

Its wood is at least equal, if not superior, to the
British oak, as a material for ship-building ; for besides
being as easy to work, it is said to be more durable. This
valuable timber abounds in most of the forests of the
Burman Empire, both to the north of Uramerapoora (or
Amarapura, " City of the Immortals ''), and in the southern
provinces. Colonel Symes* observes, that without the
timber trade to Pegu, the British marine in India could
exist only on a contracted scale. He estimates the
shipping at Calcutta at 40,000 tons ; and observes, as a
proof of its importance, that during the scarcity of the

* Colonel Symes was sent as Ambassador to Burma in 1795, by
Sir John Shore, Governor-General of India (Lord Teignmouth), with
the view of re-establishing diplomatic intercourse with the Burmese
Empire. The mission, however, was a decided failure. The
Colonel published an interesting narrative, and in 1822 was despatched
on a second mission to Ava, " which," writes General Albert Fytche,
♦•proved even a greater failure than the first." It is said that he
"failed to estimate the real character of the Burmese people, whilst
he over-rated the government and resources of the country."

122 ashIj pyee.

year 1795, when Great Britain was menaced with the
horrors of famine, 14,000 tons of shipping, mostly India-
built, freighted with rice, brought a seasonable supply to
the City of London, and greatly reduced the price of that
article. The indigenous timber of Bengal is found to be
unserviceable ; but some of the finest merchant ships ever
seen in the Thames have been built at Calcutta, of teak
wood from the forests of Pegu.

Forest conservancy, then, as well as prudent irrigation
and extensive railway communication, must ever occupy a
conspicuous place in the world's agents for the prevention
of famine ; and, considering the relative positions of India
and Burma (the dry and the moist countries), how, at any
time, as in the recent distressing Indian famines, want may
be sorely felt in the land of the Veda and the Koran, every
cry for assistance will surely be met, as heretofore, from the
fertile region of Gautama. In such a case, one might fancy
the waving of the trees signifying their acquiescence in the
good work — waving "in sign of worship" (as sung by
Milton) — at being the means of a Power ever ready and
willing to save. Burma can not only furnish you with
timber to build your ship, but also with an endless supply
of food to freight it with. It may be observed, in a general
way, that the trees of this country are superb ; and so are
the flowers, ever blooming, and flourishing, and beautiful.
The English traveller in Burma may become sated with
hills and dales, and trees and flowers; and the ubiquitous
American here sometimes discovers scenery reminding him
of his own sublime and ever-matchless prairie lands.
Doubtless, he is rarely sated with the " sylvan scenery '' of

THE FOEESTS OF BURMA. 123

various parts of Bunna, which, according to the romantic
^nd contemplative Earl of 15eaconsfield, "never palls." The
great statesman, with his fondness for trees (in this respect
like Burke and other famous men), would certainly have
iidmired those of Burma, from the noble teak down to the
wayward bamboo, with its dense columns, in the jungle or
forest, arranged like the aisles of a cathedral. The forests
of Burma are, of course, filled with nats, or spirits, like the
forests of Scandinavia and India, or all over the world.
Such arboreous sprites were probably at first inclined,
in Pegu and Tenasserim, from the prospect of not
being disturbed, to view the British Conservators with
favour ; but they must now take a difi'erent view of the
•subject.

Not long ago, when the present writer was in Burma
for the second time — 1863-64 — forest work in a great
measure consisted in clearing away jungle from around
young plants to protect them from fire, cutting away
•creepers and parasitical plants, and removing obstructions
to the due development of teak. During the above year,
this work was carried on with extreme diligence in the
Prome, Tharawadi, and Sittang sections: — 15,286 teak, and
66,333 other kinds of trees were girdled ; 304,756 young
teak-trees were cleared ; and 72,841 trees of other kinds were
cut down ; 108,689 creepers were cut. And here it may
be interesting to state that as the botanical productions of
Ash 6 Pyee are unrivalled, it is almost worth a visit to
Burma to see the ** great variety of creepers and wonderful
luxuriance of the undergrowth in the forests." Ferns and
orchids, the rapid-growing bamboo, with its fantastic forms ;

124 ashI: pyee.

and Floras own gem, the finest indigenous tree in Chin-
India, Amherstia Nohilis* — all will give the diligent and
inquiring traveller food for meditation and delight.

* See Our Burmese Wars, c^e., for a description of this beautiful
tree, p. 309.

125

CHAPTER VII.

NATIONAL OHABAOTER.

That the national character is very closely associated with
the condition and welfare of a people is a fact which few
men in their senses will attempt to disprove ; and it is, per-
haps, to he observed even more in the East than in the West.
The " bold peasantry, their country^s pride," as the poet
styles them, must be looked on, wherever we go, as the
grand motive power of those forces which must ever move
onward, whether the country of their action be Ireland or
British Burma; and then security to industry is necessary
to all countries alike. A shrewd educationist, some fifteen
years ago, thus described the condition of the people of
British Burma : " Their social condition is generally similar
throughout the three divisions. Everywhere in the plains
the land is held independent of any superior, and the
estates average from eight to ten acres in extent." * With

* General Albert Fytche corroborates this statement in his
interesting work, Burma Past and Present (1878). — "Occupied
land in the plains is an allodial possession held by small peasant
proprietors, whose holdings, on the average, do not exceed ten acres."
—Yol. i. p. 309.

126 ASHfe PYEE.

reference to the climate, the people have plenty of food and
clothing. The houses of the peasantry, whether on the
hills or on the plains, are built of bamboo, and have the
floors raised on platforms, so as to be above the reach of
the annual flood. They are never built on the ground.
The remote hill tribes are still in a savage state of isolation
and independence, but even the wildest grow cotton, and
weave cloth of strong texture and of various colours. All
the tribes, as a general characteristic, are frank and truth-
ful in the ordinary afi'airs of life; they are also very
hospitable. Since the British conquest, the people gene-
rally have acquired a considerable amount of personal
property. The small landed proprietors are independent
and prosperous, and the condition of the labouring classes
is comfortable; still, among the Burmese and other in-
digenous people, there is no class that can properly be
called wealthy. This is a pleasing picture of a people
whose national character is described at some length by a
writer, before 1852, whose sketches are compiled from the
best authorities ^ : " The general disposition of the in*-
habitants is strikingly contrasted with that of the natives
of Bengal, from which they are only separated by a narrow
range of mountains. The Burmans are a lively, inquisitive
race, active, irascible, and impatient. All the children of
Europeans born in the country are considered as the King's
subjects, and prohibited from ever leaving it ; consequently,
are doomed to a life of immorality and degradation. The
females of Ava are not concealed from the sight of men ;

* Colonel Symes, Major Canning, Captain Cox, Dr. Leyden, Dr.
Buchanan, &c. &o.

NATIONAL CHAEACTEE. 127

but, on the contrary, are suffered to have free intercourse
as in Europe ; in other respects, however, there are many
degrading distinctions, and the Burman treatment of
females generally is destitute both of delicacy and humanity.
The practice of selling their women to the stranger is not
considered as shameful, nor is the female dishonoured^
They are seldom unfaithful, and often essentially useful to
their foreign masters, who are not allowed to carry their
temporary wives along with them. Infidelity is not a
characteristic of Burman wives, who in general have too
much employment to find leisure for corruption."

This old opinion rather chimes in with General Fytche's
high commendation of woman amongst the Burmese, whose
position is a much higher and independent one than
amongst Mahomedans and Hindus. " She is with them
not the mere slave of passion, but has equal rights, and is
the recognised and duly honoured helpmate of man, and, in
fact, bears a more prominent share in the transaction of the
more ordinary affairs of life than is the case, perhaps, with
any other people, either Eastern or Western."

Kecent writers have also discoursed on the preliminaries
of that serious thing in Burma, as elsewhere, called marriage;
but which, in the land of the Golden -Foot, a French
philosopher (Balzac) would never have styled, as in his
own country, " a science." As in most Oriental climes,
and occasionally in Europe, the demonstrative precepts are
of too simple, natural, and affecting a character to admit
the use of such a mighty word. And as to love in the
question, the libel of Moore, so sweetly sung, on the French
woman whose heart ** sets sail on the ocean of wedlock, her

128 ' ASH^ PYEE.

fortune to try," is certainly not more applicable to the

Burmese dark-haired bride of Ashe Pyee : —

" Love seldom goes far in a vessel so frail,
But just pilots her off, and then bids her good-bye 1 "

Future historiaas of our Burmese conquests may pos-
^bly enlarge on that wondrous and, to many sober judges,
unaccountable power of fascination — for beauty here is
rare, and certainly never could be *' matchless deemed *' —
exercised by the Burmese women, after the First and Second
Burmese Wars, over susceptible Europeans, as if they had
been spared by the jinjals of the enemy only to be the
victims of a "basilisk " even more " sure to kill." Among
the Burmese, marriage is purely " a simple civil rite.'
According to one of the best and most recent authorities
the author of Burma Past and Vresent, women are gene
rally married ** about seventeen or nineteen years of age
to the man of their choice of about the same age or older,
the parents very seldom interfering more than to advise.'
The practical caution displayed in the following process
would reflect credit on the cleverest manoeuvring mother of
Belgravia during the height of the London season : —
" When a couple have agreed between themselves to marry,
the mother of the man, or his nearest female relative, is
generally first sent to sound the mother of the girl pri-
vately, and if she appears to approve of the match, some of
the suitor's elderly friends are sent to propose the marriage
formally to the girl's parents, and adjust the settlement.
On the parents giving their consent to the marriage, the
corheille de noce is furnished by the bridegroom according
to his means, and the marriage takes place almost imme-

NATIONAL CHARACTEB. 129

diately." Then there is a grand feast, with a pooay or
play. " The happy couple eat out of the same dish before
the assembled guests ; after which the bridegroom presents
the bride with hla-pet (pickled tea, from Thein-nee), the
compliment is returned, and the ceremony is practically
brought to a close." * It may now be well to resume the
study of national character in the older writers : — In their
features the Burmans bear a nearer resemblance to the
Chinese than to the natives of Hindustan. The women,
especially in the northern parts of the empire, are fairer
than the Hindu females, but are not so delicately formed.
The men are not tall in stature, but they are active and
athletic, and have a very youthful appearance, from the
custom of plucking the beard instead of using the razor.
Both men and women colour their teeth, their eye-lashes,
and the edges of their eye-lids with black. With further
reference to marriage, the law prohibits polygamy, and
recognizes only one wife, but concubinage is admitted to an
unlimited extent. When a man dies intestate, three-fourths
of his property go to his children born in wedlock, and
one-fourth to his widow. The Burmans burn their dead.
In their food, compared with the Hindustanis, the Bur-
mans are gross and uncleanly. Although their religion
forbids the slaughter of animals in general, yet they apply
the interdiction only to those that are domesticated. All
game is eagerly sought after, and in many places publicly
sold. Reptiles, such as lizards, guanos, and snakes, con-
stitute a part of the subsistence of the lower classes. To

* Burma Past and Present, vo ii, pp. 69-70.

130 ^ ASHij PTEE.

Strangers they grant the most liberal indulgence, and if
they chance to shoot at and kill a fat bullock, it is ascribed
to accident. Among the Burmans the sitting posture is
the most respectful, but strangers are apt to attribute to
insolence what, in their view, is a mark of deference.
Gilding is forbidden to all Burmans, liberty even to lacquer
and paint the pillars of their houses is granted to few. In this
empire everything belonging to the King has the vfordishoe,
or *' gold," prefixed to it ; even his Majesty's person is never
mentioned but in conjunction with that precious metal.
When a subject means to affirm that the King has heard
anything, he says, *' it has reached the golden ears " ; he
who has obtained admittance to the royal presence has been
at the *' golden feet." The perfume of utr of roses is
described as being grateful to the " golden nose."* Gold
among the Burmans is the type of excellence ; yet, although
highly valued, it is not used for coin in the country. It
is employed sometimes in ornaments for the women, and in
utensils and ear-rings for the men ; but much the greatest
quantity, is employed in gilding their temples, in which de-
coration vast sums are continually lavished. The Burman
Sovereign is sole proprietor of all the elephants in his
dominions, and the privilege to ride on, or keep, one of these
animals is an honour only granted to men of the first rank..
In Hindustan, female elephants are prized beyond males,^
on account of their being more tractable ; but in Ava it is
the reverse, females being never used on State occasions, and
seldom for ordinary riding. The henza, the symbol of

* See Ouf Burmese Wars and Melatiom with Burma, p. 45 {noU)»

NATIONAL CHAEACTEE. 131

the Burman nation, as the eagle was of the Roman Empire,
is a species of wild fowl, called in India the Brahminy
goose. It is a remarkable circumstance that there should
not be such an animal as a jackal in the Ava (Burmese)
dominions. The Burmans of high rank have their barges
drawn by war-boats, it being thought inconsistent with
their dignity for great men to be in the same boat with
common watermen. It is customary, also, for a person of
distinction journeying on the water, to have houses built
for his accommodation at the places where he means to
stop. The materials of these houses are easily procured,
and the structure is so simple, that a spacious and commo-
dious dwelling, suitable to the climate, may be erected in
little more than four hours. Bamboos, grass for thatch-
ing, and the ground rattan, are all the materials requisite ;
not a nail is used in the edifice, and " if the whole were
to fall, it would scarcely crush a lap-dog."

Notwithstanding the well-formed arches of brick that are
still to be seen in many of the ancient temples, yet Burman
workmen can no longer turn them ; which shows how easily
an art once well known may be lost. Masonry, in the
latter ages, has not been much attended to ; wooden build-
ings have superseded the more solid structures of bricks and
mortar.*

Of course, bricks and mortar, under our rule, are now
commonly used in many of the public and other works in
British Burma. But the days of the grand old brick pile

♦ See An Account of the Burman Empire, Calcutta, 1852. For more
relating to Burmese national character, &c., see Our Burmese Wars, dtc,
pp. 154, 156, 189, 191, 328.

9 *

132 ash6 pyeb.

— like the temple of the Golden Supreme at Pegu, and the
Shwe Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon — are gone for ever.

At the close of this chapter, it was interesting to read
as hearing on a general view of the Burmese national
character — of "Festivities in Burma'' in October 1880,
when there were grand doings in Mandalay. At the full-
moon of Thadingyoot, the end of the Buddhist Lent, there
was a " Kodau," or " Beg-pardon day." On this eventful
day, all the officials have to come to the palace and " do
homage and worship at the Golden Feet ; " as in England,
during Lent, everyone is supposed to fast, he pious, and
" improve his mind generally/' It was presumed that the
October " Beg-pardon day " at Mandalay augured well for
the future of King Theebau and his people.

133

CHAPTEE VIII.

THE SHOE QUESTION. — COUKT ETIQUETTE IN BURMA.

At the Court of Ava compliance with the oriental custom
of removing the shoes has always been required from
persons admitted to the presence of the King. It is not
surprising that the representative of the Chief Commis-
sioner who, like others, had to conform to the etiquette of
the Court, should have desired exemption from a practice
so distasteful. But the question was never considered of
suflBcient importance to be made the subject of special
discussion with the King. When, however, the Burmese
Ambassadors visited Calcutta in 1874, in connection with
the question of Karennee, on which the two countries had
very nearly gone to war. Lord Northbrook,* who received
them with suitable formalities, expressed his hope that in
the reception of the British officer at Mandalay an
etiquette would not in future be required, which was
unsuited to English habits and scarcely in keeping with
the position of the British representative.

• Then Viceroy of India; -now the Right Hon. the Earl of
Northbrook, First Lord of the Admiralty.

134 KSHk PYEE.

Shortly afterwards the status of the British Agency at
Mandalay was raised, an officer of high rank, with the
powers of a first-class Resident or Ambassador, being
appointed to represent, not, as heretofore, the Chief Com-
missioner, but the Viceroy of India. He was instructed
by Lord Northbrook's Government to discontinue the
practice of removing the shoes. The King, however,
evaded the difficulty by transacting business with the
Resident mainly through his ministers, instead of by
personal interviews. When Mr. Shaw attended the funeral
of Mengdon Meng, the local Rangoon press shouted joyfully
that the Shoe question was at last finally and for ever settled.
" Whether," says the author of the Notes before quoted,
** they ever acknowledged that they had halloed before they
were out of the wood, I know not, but it is a fact that no
'Kulla,' or other person, can go into the presence of the
' Golden-Foot ' without removing his shoes, and endeavour-
ing painfully to perform the umbilical trick of prostration."*
The Burmese official custom of etiquette, then, still holds
good. *' I believe," remarks the same writer, who has a
quiet touch of humour about him, " that so long as there
is a King and a palace, this etiquette, that everyone
entering the palace and the audience hall will have to
remove his shoes, endeavour to recline gracefully on his
umbilicus, and be as * 'umble ' as Uriah Heep, will prevail,
even unto the end."

In a capital little essay on " Oriental Etiquette,"t it is
observed that the custom of removing boots in Burma is

* Upper and Lower Burma, pp. 18-19
+ See Globe, July 31st, 1880.

THE SHOE QUESTION. 135

" an ingenious device to exalt the monarch of the Golden-
Foot, and degrade his subjects, and strangers, too, before
him. It is carried further at Mandalay than at any other
Asiatic Court." Again : " Our diplomatic difficulties with
the Burmese Court have been considerably intensified, at
different times, owiug to the insistance of the Lord Cham-
berlain at Ava or Mandalay that our envoy should take his
boots off, and the reluctance of our proud and diffident
representatives to appear iu public in their stockings. The
rBritish, however, are not by any means the only people
whose feelings have been hurt by this unpleasant dis-
courtesy; and Asiatic, as well as European, ambassadors
have been in the most ancient times subjected to the in-
convenience. The first Chinese invasion of Burma (1284
A.D.), was brought about entirely by the ' shoe difficulty.'
The Chinese envoys to the monarch Nara-thee-ha-hade
had insisted, in spite of remonstrances, on appearing in the
royal presence with their boots on. They ought to have
known better, for at Pekin such conduct would have been
-considered the height of bad manners ; and, as far as they
were concerned, their infraction of Burmese etiquette had a
very unpleasant ending. They were not allowed twice to
insult the ' Lord of all the White Elephants,' but were way-
laid in a quiet part of Amarapura, and had their throats
cut; a summary mode of proceeding which brought an
army upon Burma from the Flowery Land." *

It was recently announced that King Theebau and his
Council had settled the shoe difficulty in "an amusing
way." By means of long ranges of planking, like boxes, the

* See also Our Burmese Wars^ dtc, pp. 395, 406.

136 ashIi pyee.

King will not see anybody's feet. The Golden Foot him-
self will appear on a grand dais. Ambassadors or foreigners
will be seated on chairs ; but they must not stir till His
Majesty is gone. Whether true or not, the idea is certainly
no very bad one.

As to shikhoing, it is also written : " The Burmese
officials all ' shikhoe ' to Royalty, that is, make an obeisance
by raising the two hands to the forehead and bowing the
head to the ground On Colonel Phayre, our envoy to
Mandalay, objecting to do this, the Woondouk said r
* When at Calcutta at the Government House you told me
to bow to the Governor- General, which you said was your
custom. I am only telling you what ours is/ Formerly,
our envoys to Burma were obliged to double their legs
behind them, it being contrary to the existing etiquette to
turn the foot, covered or uncovered, towards the King.^'

Thus is the world, notably East and West, in some
measure subjected to the tyranny of Etiquette. Of course
the science is necessary to keep good society together;
but excess therein is simply making fools of ourselves by
rule. Perhaps Shakespeare had some such view in his
mind when he wrote of *' new customs," which may also be
applied to old —

" Though they be never so ridiculous,
Nay, let them be unmanly
Still are followed."

137

CHAPTER IX.

GAUTAMA.*

Having attempted, while in England, to give the British
puhlic some idea of the worship of Jagannath and his^
celehrated shrine, it was strange enough to find oneself^
so soon after, far away from Europe, far away even from
wild, romantic Orissa, in a land of war, endeavouring
to make something of another of those '* stratas of pseudo-
religious fiction in which are preserved the debris and the
fossilized skeletons of the faith.'f

The origin of Gautama is a moot point among the
Burmese. One of their theories or traditions runs thusr —
At the creation of the world by the Supreme Being, some
angels, or inhabitants of the other world, came down below
and tasted of the earth. One of them found the new
material so excellent that he ate so much, he could not

* Eevised from Rangoon: A Narrative of the Second Burmese War,
London, 1862.

t Orissa, and British Connexion with the Temple of Jagannath.
London, 1851.

138 ASH& PYEE.

again ascend. He therefore remained on earth as Gautama,
watching over mankind, to the present day, through all
their innumerable vicissitudes.

Jagannath and Gautama, both are believed to be incar-
nations ; the former, one of the popular incarnations of
Vishnu, the latter of Buddha. But Buddha, that quiet,
sleepless philosopher, who has given so much trouble to
men of science, is supposed by many of the Hindus to be
the ninth incarnation of Vishnu. Jagannath and Gautama,
then, one would suppose, are not so very distinct. But
they are very distinct in practice ; and this is an " Asian
mystery." Even the far-famed temple of Jagannath is
•situated, as remarked by Colonel Sykes, "on or near the
site of a celebrated relic temple of the Buddhists ; " there
is every reason, therefore, to believe that the modem
worship of Jagannath has a Buddhist origin. As the
priority of Buddhism, the original patriarchal system, is
now pretty generally admitted, it is well to see what those
Brahmans, who consider Buddha an avatar of Vishnu,
think of that extraordinary sage. He seems to us the
Luther of Antiquity in the East. He exerted himself,
according to the Indian history, in restoring the religion of
bis country — India— to its original purity.

This was not tolerated, as it tended to destroy Brahman-
ical influence ; sin, in consequence, abounded more and
more ; the righteous were detested, persecuted ; and in the
fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries of the Christian era, the
followers of the religion of Buddha were expelled from
Hindustan. This religious and contemplative creed, in its
present form, probably originated in Central India; but

GAUTAMA. 139

every date and computation regarding the era of Buddha
differs. It is placed as far hack as 1330 b.c He may
have heen some great and wise king, eventually deified by
his subjects and meeting with extraordinary veneration,
amounting to superstition, such as is practised throughout
Thibet, Siam, Cochin China, Burma, Tartary, Japan, even to
the present day. To reconcile dates,* say that two Buddhas,
or rather, Gautamas, are believed to have dwelt on earth.

Many Buddhists think that the present universe has been
ruled successively by four Buddhas, of whom Gautama (or
Gaudama), whose doctrines now prevail in Ceylon, Ava,
and some other places where the religion of Buddha is
acknowledged, is the fourth. A fifth Maistree Buddha is
yet to come ; he, a greater than any hitherto, is yet to
come. And in India, there is " Kalki," the tenth incarna-
tion of Vishnu, yet to take place. The " Preserver,"
mounted on a white horse, with a scimitar in his hand, is
to renovate creation with an era of purity. If it be not too
presumptuous to advance such a supposition, these strange
incarnations are likely to be realized in British power,
British civilisation, and British enterprise in the East.
[Strange ! While revising this chapter, we read of that able
and energetic general, Skobeleff, in a recent engagement
with the Turkomans, having a famous white horse shot under
him, to the dismay of the superstitious soldiers. Question

* The dates of the Siamese, Japanese, and Geylonese (Singhalese),
are 544 and 542 — the first two agreeing in date ; and Monsieur Bailly
and Sir W. Jones nearly agree with the Chinese, in assigning to the
era of Buddha the dates of 1031, and about 1000 b.c. There must,
it has been supposed, have been two Buddhas — one, perhaps, the incar-
nation of Vishnu, the other the original Buddha (or Bfidha), pro-
bably a king of India. — Orissa, p. 13.

140 ASHfe PYEE.

for Kusso-phobists : Is Kalki to be realised in British or
Russian power in the East ?]

Gautama is supposed by many to have established the
sect of Buddhists. He was greatly offended with the
conduct of the Brahmans on a particular occasion, which
was the cause of his separating from their communion, and
establishing a new religion. So says tradition. ** This
Gautama," writes Colonel Vans Kennedy, in his erudite
Researches, *'may have been merely a learned Brahman;
for it certainly seems much more probable that in India a
Brahman should be the founder of a new sect, than that it
should owe its origin to the son of a king."

But the Buddhists whollij disavow the ninth incarnation
of Vishnu. They insist that the worship of Buddha pos-
sesses a far higher claim to antiquity than that of the
deities of the Brahmans, who, they maintain, came from
other countries, and established their own religion, mainly
by the power of the sword, on the ruins of the more ancient
one of Buddha, which had for ages before prevailed.* In
a former work f we stated that, with all its errors, a seeming
purity, an honesty, a sincerity of purpose, belong to Bud-
dhism, which we search for in vain in Brahmanism. The
Brahmans appear before us in dark colours as a set of
despots, shorn of all their scientific glory, whose chief
delight is to fetter the human intellect by domineering over
the inferior masses of mankind. Among the Buddhists
of later centuries, including those of the present time^
the adoration of a Great Supreme, unseen, is more appa-
rent than among the Brahmans. The present Brahmanioal

* Coleman. f Oritsa.

GAUTAMA. 141

system, which has so long existed, is founded on outward
display, licentiousness, and mammon. Yet this neglect of
the spirit pervading all things is forbidden in the principal
shastras, and by various Brahmanical authors, where it is
stated that " it is for the ignorant to view God in wood
and stone ; the wise behold him in spirit alone." Buddhism
is supposed to have been introduced into the kingdoms
of Ava and Pegu by emissaries from Ceylon.

According to the Chinese it came into their Empire about
sixty-five years after the commencement of the Christian
era, during the reign of Ming-ty, of the Han dynasty.
" That monarch, considering a certain saying of Confucius
to be prophetic of some saint to be discovered in the west,
sent emissaries to seek him out." On reaching India they
discovered the sect of Buddhists, and brought back some
of them with their idols and books to China. The
tradition is, that Buddha was both king and priest in a
country of the west, with a queen whom he made a
divinity.*

And now Buddha awakes from a state of felicitous
nonentity, f and assumes his operative and creative
qualities ; so let us at Rangoon behold him incarnate as
Gautama. The most common image, from the colossal
down to the diminutive, is that which sits with crossed legs,

* The Chinese, by Davis. See also Our Burmese Wars, c^c, p. 2.

t Niebban, in Burmese, is annihilation. Alluding to Bandoola, in
the First Burmese War, having a superstitious fear, the writer
remarked that such was " inseparable from a Burman and a believer
in Gautama, in which religion, spirits, charms, transmigrations.
Niebbarij or Nervana — annihilation, and yet, as Gautama mentions,
an ' eternal city,' hardly perfect annihilation — ^form the leading
features." — Our Burmese Wars, c^c, p. 45.

142 ASHE PYEE.

the right arm easily depending, or on the knee ; the left arm
is laid across the body The ears have elongated lobes
reaching to the shoulders ; and the hair is twisted into a
fantastic knot on the top of the head. There sits the
creature, clad in an effeminate robe, gazing tranquilly. It
is often mistaken for a female. To get a good view of other
specimens, let us survey the large, upright images.* Many
of them stand twelve feet in height, and have the right
hand over the breast, while the left holds up a graceful flow
of drapery. The head is encircled with ornaments. There
is a touch of female beauty about the faces of some of
them. These figures, perhaps, were designed to represent
the past, the queens of successive Gautamas throughout
many generations. The gilding appears to be of a superior
quality. Strange enough it is that the Burmese excel alike
in forming a beautiful image, and in fabricating from stone
or wood some winged monsters which are absolutely
terrible to look upon. Such are some of those which stand
out around the great pagoda.

In the creed of Gautama, there is nothing like the
Brahmanical caste. This is a very important point. Com-
paring Brahmanism with Buddhism, a writer remarks: —
" Imperfect as Gautama's moral system undoubtedly is, it
must be acknowledged free from numerous gross Brah-
manical sources of error. Untihackled by caste, and
resting their hopes on individual merit, his followers are
characterised by greater independence of conduct, and a
somewhat higher, less clouded ethical knowledge." And

* Soon after the capture of the Great Pagoda, nearly all those
*' comely " creatures were removed.

GAUTAMA. 148

again : " It may strike the heart of a Christian heavily, ta
see prayers offered up before the uncouth idols of Gautama ;
yet, after having witnessed Hindu rites and festivals,
there may be some consolation in the far more amiable
features which the service of Gautama assumes, and in
the freedom of his followers from the debasing effects of
impure rites, and scenes of barbarous and revolting
cruelties."* There can be no doubt of the truth of these
remarks, and they augur well for the future enlighten-
ment and consequent civilisation of Burma.

The changes that the various religions of the earth have
undergone, must always form matter of interest to the
student of history. But all arrive at the same Omega —
there is but one God, Jehovah, the Lord of all. With
regard to the caste, excluded from the creed of Gautama,
but the effect of which on our own Anglo-Indian empire
is a matter of serious importance. Colonel Sykes gives
some interesting information in his Notes on Ancient
India, It is supposed that the divisions of caste were
anciently " secular and not religious, as the four castes, as
they were called, existed equally amongst the Buddhists,
as amongst the Hindus." Brahmanical caste, however, is
considered to be a divine ordinaiice, whilst the Buddhist is
regarded simply as a civil institution Strictly speaking,
there is no Buddhistical caste. Consequently, we are
warranted in stating, that the religion of Gautama i&
unshackled by caste.

By the simple introduction of one letter to the present
name, it will be observed that the mystic syllable aum

* Calcutta Review.

144 ASHfe PYBB.

appears in the word Gautama. It literally signifies three
in one. The Brahmans apply it to their triad of Brahma^
VisJmUj and Siva. The Buddhists apply it to Buddha,
Dharma, and Sanga, According to the interior doctrine,
Buddha, or the Intelligence, produced Dharma, the Law,
and the two united constituted Sanga, the Union, or
combination of several. Such is the Buddhist Supreme
Head, or God, the Law, and the Church. These three
are supposed by M. Remusat to have been represented by
images in China, during the grand processions many
centuries ago. Then *' all the images were of gold or
silver, ornamented with precious stones. When the images
had arrived within 100 paces of the gate (in this instance,
of the city of Khotan), the King took off his crown,
changed his garments, and advanced barefoot towards it
{i.e, the supreme image of Buddha), accompanied by his
suite ; falling at its feet, he adored it (* a gross corruption
of the principles of Buddhism, which taught the worship
of the Supreme Intelligence only '), burning at the same
time perfumes, and scattering flowers." *

There is little or no difference in the manner in which
these processions are ordered in many parts of China, even
at the present day. The priesthood assembled, worship-
ping, chanting, striking gongs; the priests with shaven
crowns, and arrayed in the yellow robes of their religion,

* Quoted in the author's Idol-shrine, from Notes on Ancient India,
By Colonel Sykes, F.K.S. With reference to the above, Orientalists
have remarked as singular facts the carrying supposed Brahmanical
gods in procession in a subordinate capacity to Buddha ; also that
the chief gods of modern Hindu worship, Vishnu and Siva, are not
mentioned ; while Indra and Brahma, who then figured, are now in
the background.

GAUTAMA. 145

their " lowering look of bigotry," incense burning in the
temple, counting of beads and tinkling of bells — what a
glimpse have we of the importance attached to outward
worship in all this display !

The worship of Gautama in the Tenasserim Provinces,
and other portions of the old Burmese Empire, is at the
present time celebrated in a similar way. In the religious
procession there may be cars, dressed out with rude
grandeur, as at Jagannath ; but without the noise and the
indecencies and the fanatic madness of Indian worship ;
or it may be simply a foot procession, when well-dressed
Talaings (Peguese) and Burmese proceed on particular
occasions to their numerous pagodas, "bearing offerings
of flowers, of fruits, of flags, of glittering umbrellas," and
present their ofi"erings at the altars, or place them around
and against the pagodas and image-houses.

The books of the Buddhist priests, we are informed,
mentioned a country called Sylan (Ceylon) in which, near
the sea, there is on a certain mountain (Adam's Peak)
the print of a foot three cubits in length. At Rangoon,
we found a colossal foot of Gautama ; it was discovered
at the base of one of the large images, and it certainly is
a great curiosity. It is of solid white marble, about five
feet in length, and ten or twelve inches deep. Several
strong European soldiers could scarcely move the huge
foot. It was hoped that the British Museum might be yet
enriched by the presence of this colossal symbol. The
handsome sawmies, as the Hindus style them, brought in
for sale, we did not find of much value ; but they are
curious. The coating of silver was generally very thin.

10

146 ASHi: PYEB.

The figures are represented sometimes holding a small pot,
or a basket of eggs. Perhaps they are intended to illustrate
how the disciples of the Phongyees are employed out of
school-hours. The inhabitants of villages most -willingly
present these pupils, out of respect for their teachers, with
rice, fruit, and other eatables. A Kioung, or monastery,
is a suitable residence for one or more Phongyees. These
are built at the expense of the town or village. Round
the Kioung, the Dzayat is built for the use of travellers.

The dependence of the priesthood of Gautama on charity
reminds one of the usages of the primitive Christian pro-
fessors— " Go your ways : behold I send you forth as lambs
among wolves. Carry neither purse, nor scrip, nor shoes :
and salute no man by the way. And into whatsoever
house ye enter first say, Peace be to this house." * Such
were the words of the Divine Teacher of mankind.f Mercy
and charity are two remarkable features in Buddhism. The
Phongyees are the national instructors. " Any layman may
turn Phongyee, and vice versa, a Phongyee may lay aside
his yellow cloth and re-enter upon a secular life." In
China there are numerous monasteries attached to the
temples of Fo, or Buddha. The mendicant priests therein
resemble the monks of the Roman Church. Celibacy is a
principal vow on entering the priesthood. It is of course
the same with the Phongyee. The Phongyees of Burma are
a remarkable class of men ; but yet for all their wisdom,

* St. Luke, X. 3, 4, 5.

t For some remarkable Burmese G-eneral Orders, during the First
War, in which there is wording similar to that in the Old and New
Testaments, see Our Burmese Wars and Relations with Burma^
pp. 437-438.

GAUTAMA. 147

they do not hesitate to believe that the mother of Buddha
or Gautama swallowed an elephant in a dream, whence one
reason of the veneration for elephants in this golden land.*

Buddha^s birthplace and residence is" supposed to have
been Gya, in Behar. Gautama — styled also Gautom, or
Gaudraa — the saint or philosopher, is said by the Burmans
to have flourished 2,300 years ago, and taught in the Indian
schools the heterodox religion and philosophy of Buddha.
His image, we read, is called Gautama, )**' a commonly-
received appellation for Buddha himself." The Burmese,
then, are followers of "Boodh,^' whose image is worshipped
throughout the country under the name of Gautama. It is
also written that Gautama was born about B.C. 626, having
previously lived in millions of worlds, and passed through
millions of conditions in each ; that he became a " Budh "
in the thirty-fifth year of his age, and remained so forty-five
years. "There is no evidence," writes]^Mrs. Mason, '* to
show that Buddhism, as it now is, had'any existence in the
days of Gautama. On the contrary, the ancient Pali in-
scriptions, made two or three centuries after Gautama's
death, prove that it had not then ; for they show that cer-
tain birds and beasts were allowed to be killed ]f or food."—

In fact, the study of Gautama is inexhaustible ; and it
may be strongly recommended to those perverse disturbers
of the Established Church of England — the Ritualists — at
the present time (1880). It might even be advisable to
recommend that young would-be priests about to take
Holy Orders should first pass an examination in Buddhism
— the original patriarchal system — in order that, by treading
* End of chapter in Narrative,

10 *

148 ASHfc PYEE.

the long extent of backward time in its history, they might
have the chance of wondering how, towards the end of the
enlightened nineteenth century, able and clever men can
be guilty of such tremendous clerical follies, follies un-
worthy even of the dark ages. But, putting these aside,
there is much that is wonderful in the study of Buddha or
Gautama. According to M. Manupied, he is almost fore-
told in the prophecies of Isaiah, or rather, it is asserted
that the prediction concerning the birth of Buddha, as
discovered by a Chinese traveller (Fa-hian), is only an
enlarged edition of Isaiah's prophecy on the coming of the
Saviour : — " * A sa naissance les dieux firent paraitre trente-
deux signes ou presages relatifs a cet evenement * . . .
voici les plus remarquables. *Les monticules et les collines
s'applanirent ... les arbres sees se couvrirent de fleurs et
de feuilles ... les terrains sans eaux produiserent des
lotus grands comme les roues d'un char . . . cinq cent
elephants blancs (regardes comme des animaux dangereux)
qui s'etaient pris d'eux memes dans les filets se trouverent
devant le palais. . . Cinq cent lions blancs, sortirent des
montagnes de neige, et se trouverent lies a la porte de la
villa .... les tourments des enfers furent interompus,' "
&c. &c. It would be difficult to find a more striking re-
semblance than that offered by these two prophecies, on
which the writer has before dwelt at length (See The Idol
Shrine, p. 48) ; and here it may be remarked, while writing
on Burma, the above-mentioned " White Elephants " have,
of course, something to do with the veneration paid by the
Golden Foot and his subjects to the White Elephant at the
present day.

GAUTAMA. 149

Here it may be of interest to remark that, notwithstand-
ing the Burmans are members of the sect of Buddha, and
not disciples of Brahma, *' they nevertheless reverence the
Brahmans, and acknowledge their superiority in science
over their own priests." The King and all his chief
officers have always in their houses some of these
** domestic sages," who supply them, with the skill of
political Guy Mannerings, with astrological advice.
Perhaps these scientific gentry have done more harm to
King Theebau than is supposed ; above all, that of teach-
ing him to undervalue British power and influence, on
which depends the regeneration of Upper Burma. — But a
word or two more on Gautama. As will have been seen,
it is a remarkable and interesting study ; especially as, in
the words of General Fytche, " the singular analogies that
€xist between the rituals, institutions, and outward obser-
vances of Romish Christianity and Buddhism is very start-
ling.'* Buddhism tinged with Romanism, then, or vice
versa, is a curious fact; Gautama identified with the
Saviour of Mankind ; Maha Maria — '* the great Mary" —
the supposed mother of the great Eastern teacher; the
curious circumstance (also mentioned by General Fytche)
connected with the legend of Gautama, **that of being
•entered as a saint in the Roman Calendar, and ordered to
be worshipped as a saint on every 27th November, under
the title of St. Josaphat ; * — all these things, and many
more, regarding Buddha and Gautama, are well worthy of
the study of every Christian or searcher after knowledge.

* See Burma Past and Present, vol. ii. chap. iv. One of the most
interesting chapters on Buddhism ever written.

150 ASnfe PYEB.

SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER.

SIR ARTHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA.

It was not without great pleasure that Anglo-Burmans in
this country received the announcement that Sir Arthur
Phayre would read a paper on British Burma before the
Society of Arts (Indian Section), May 13th, 1881. If local
knowledge were ever to unroll the ample page on such a
subject — knowledge of yesterday and to-day adorned by
the rich " spoils of time *' — there surely could be no better
expositor than this experienced and distinguished adminis-
trator of Chin-India. As, doubtless, the paper read by Sir
Arthur Phayre has drawn the attention of many to Burma,
who before regarded the country without much hope or
favour, it may please the readers of this little work if we
commence a supplementary chapter with a brief sketch of
his career. It is the career of one of " a class of public
servants which has never been equalled upon earth." Such
was the eulogy bestowed by a high authority on the many
illustrious men produced under the system of the old East
India Company; and certainly, when we look at their

SIR ARTHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 151

actions, the difficulties they had to encounter, and the
vastness of the splendid dominion in which they laboured,
the praise seems not undeserved."^

Sir Arthur became an ensign in the Bengal Army on the
13th August 1828, a lieutenant in 1835, a captain in 1843,
major in 1854, and lieutenant-colonel in 1859. He was
appointed to the Bengal Staff Corps in 1861, and five
years later held the rank of colonel. In 1870, he was a
major-general, which rank he held with the honourable
adjuncts of K. C.S.I, and C.B. In 1877, he became a
lieutenant-general, which rank, with the additional distinc-
tion of G.C.M.G., he now holds.

From the first he was essentially a political officer, for,
as in the cases of Malcolm and Munro — Sir John and Sir
Thomas the Great — the duties of drill and discipline were
second in his mind to the more noble work of settling the
affairs of kingdoms.

It was during the Second Burmese War, 1852-53, not
long after that " brilliant feat of arms," the capture of
Rangoon, and when the important towns of Bassein,
Prome, and Pegu had fallen into our hands, while the
energy of the great pro-consul. Lord Dalhousie, was in the
ascendant, that Captain Phayre was looked upon as
the only man fitted to be the future administrator of the
conquered kingdom. Released from the tyranny of the
Golden Foot, it was thought that the administrative talents
of the Bengal captain — who had turned the swamps of
Arakan into the granary of the bay, and whose forte lay in

* See the author's Sketches of Some Distinguished Anglo-Indians ^
p. 135.

152 ASHfe PYEE.

making a little kingdom a great one — would soon render
Pegu a most important and valuable British possession.
The reading by the new Commissioner (middle of January
18n3) of the Governor- General's proclamation, annexing
Pegu to the British territories in the East, no doubt. Sir
Arthur considers not the least important action in his busy
life ; while hardly less remarkable was another, when, a
year or two afterwards, in the marble hall of Government
House, Calcutta, Major Phayre, as interpreter, by desire,
and in the presence of the Governor-General, announced
to the Burmese Envoy — who had come by command of the
King of Ava to seek restitution of the whole of the
captured provinces — that " as long as the sun shines

IN THE heavens, THE BRITISH FLAG SHALL WAVE OVER

THOSE POSSESSIONS."* — A Capital lesson for those short-
sighted political sentimentalists who would talk of giving
up any of the really useful and profitable, and, it may
be said, humane conquests of Great Britain.

When Sir Arthur Phayre had finished his work in Pegu,
he was (1860) appointed the first Chief Commissioner of
British Burma — or Pegu, Arakan, and Tenasserim. No
better representative of His Excellency the Viceroy could
have been appointed; and in March 1867, when he gave
up his high post to General Albert Fytche, Pegu might
have been looked upon as possessing a model adminis-
trator. Within a period of fifteen years (from 1853),
British Burma had attained a prosperity which rivalled that
of any province in India ; and in the ten years, from

* See Our Burmese Wars, d;c., p. 322.

SIR ARTHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 153

1856-56 to 1864-65, the revenue was doubled. At the
same time the population — which had been essentially
reduced through the devastating wars which for centuries
had desolated the entire region from Chittagong to Siam —
increased from 1,252,555 to 2,196,180. Where, in the
history of national statistics, have we more splendid results
than these ? The official report on the administration for
1866-67 does Sir Arthur Phayre full justice. The details of
his labours are most carefully noticed ; and this was only
fair to a master of detail in administration. His intimate
knowledge of the Burmese language, and scholarly acquaint-
ance with the dialects of the races in, and contiguous to,
British Burma, and his close study of their history and
characteristics " rendered him an authority on the philology
and ethnology of the Indo-Chinese nations" — perhaps, we
venture to add, the soundest that England can boast. Mr.
Cory ton, in a letter to the Liverpool Chamber of Com-
merce, after Sir Arthur Phayre's retirement from British
Burma, quoted a fine passage from the report above-
mentioned, which must not be omitted from this brief
sketch : — *' His constant accessibility and courteousness to
the people of the country, whatever their position, gained
for him their confidence and respect to an unusual extent.
He was careful of the rights of Government, but zealous
and watchful over the interests of the native population.^'
To this we may add, that in the all-important matter of
education there could not be a more zealous advocate for
the diffusion of its blessings. For this alone he will ever
be remembered by the people of Pegu, to whom he strove
•to give a national system of education, founded on the best

154 ashIi pyee.

principles ; while for his works among them in general,
Peguese, Burmese, and Karens (Deists chiefly inhabiting
the hills), for many generations to come, will, as in the case
of the "Munro Sahib*' in southern, and in that of "Jan-
Malcolm Sahib " in Central India, make it apparent to the
inquisitive traveller in their region, that whoever mentioned
the great Chief Commissioner — as Dr. Johnson said when
extolling a celebrated poet — mentioned him with honour.

In 1874, Sir Arthur Phayre was appointed by Lord
Carnarvon to the Governorship of the Mauritius. The
appointment was considered an honour to the Indian army ;
and many of us saw in the laudable action of the Colonial
Secretary that the clever and experienced Anglo-Indian was
"no longer to be left out in the cold." After visiting the
Cape, where, at the time, trouble was paramount, and con-
fusion facing misfortune everywhere, he returned to
England about the middle of 1879, leading a comparatively
retired life, till he appeared before the famous Society of
Arts, where we are now to welcome him.

A better selected chairman could not have been found
for the occasion than Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B., Vice-
President of the Royal Geographical Society ; while the
able and ever-zealous Mr. Trelawney Saunders, Geographer
to the India Office, was ready to point out the various
places alluded to by the distinguished lecturer on the
map.

Sir Arthur Phayre commenced by an allusion to the
rapid progress made in material prosperity by British
Burma during the last twenty years.

Statistics of trade and revenue were not available for a

SIR AETHUE PHATEE ON BEITISH BUEMA. 165

later period than 1879-80. The population by the census
of the present year had just been received, but he did not
propose to do more than briefly refer to some of the statistics
" for a few years preceding that above mentioned." We
were reminded that Burma is inhabited " mainly by people
of the Burmese race, and which is as distinctly the country
of the Irawadi and its tributaries as Egypt is the gift of
the Nile." Politically, it is divided into two parts : British
Burma and Independent Burma. Sir Arthur proposed, on
the present occasion, to refer only incidentally to the latter.
The following passage, and other passages to be cited
hereafter, will supplement any dej&ciencies of information
made by the present writer while treating the same subjects
in this little work, and elsewhere : "British Burma was
formed, to speak generally, from the union of three mari-
time provinces, two of which, Arakan and Tenasserim,
were annexed to the British Indian Empire in 18:^6, and
one, Pegu, which became British territory in 1852. The
province has a direct sea-coast line, extending about 900
miles along the eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal. Though
for such an extent the number of ports is limited, yet the
outlets of the great rivers give at Akyab, Bassein, Kan-
goon, and Maulmain, admirable positions for trade with
other countries. The province has an area of about 94,000
square miles, being a little larger than Great Britain." The
reader will already have seen it mentioned (in the Third
Chapter) that British Burma is about half the size of Spain.
This was stated on the assumption that the former had an
area of only 90,000 square miles. The concise nature of
the following information, coming from such a learned

156 ASHfe PYEE.

authority, adds much to its interest at the present time,
when China and the Indo-Chinese races would seem to be,
as it were, emerging from darkness into a marvellous, and,
it is to he hoped, lasting light : "The Burmese people, who,
including the Talaings, or Peguans, form about five-sixths
of the population of British Burma, are classed by ethnolo-
gists as Mongoloids. The numerous hill-tribes, Keurens,
Khyengs, Kamis, and others, belong to the same family.
The Burmese, by their physiognomy as well as by their
language, show that they belong to the same family as the
Bhote, or people of Tibet The connection from the one
to the other, though their countries are so far apart, may
be traced by similarity in the physical form and speech of
tribes dwelling on the south-eastern border of the great
plateau of Tibet, and bordering the way along the courses
•of rivers to the country of the middle Irawadi. The Burmese
language may be roughly described as monosyllabic, though
this classification can only be applied to it with consider-
able modification. The Talaing people, who chiefly in-
habit the delta of the Irawadi, may no doubt be traced to
the same original seat as the Burmese; but their ancestors
appear to have left it at a much earlier period than the
forefathers of the latter. Their language, which now differs
materially from that of the Burmese, has become nearly
extinct, and there is, perhaps, a larger Talaing-speaking
people in Siam than in Pegu.*' Leaving such matters for
the euridite Max Miiller and his students to solve, we now
come to the population of British Burma. Elsewhere
allusion has been made to the sparseness of population* in
* See Our Burmese Wars and Relations with Burma^ p. 328.

SIR AETHUR PHAYEE ON BRITISH BURMA. 157

the country when it fell into our possession, as well as to
the causes of such a scarcity of life-blood in Ashe Pyee, ^
— life-blood so necessary to develope the resources of a land
teeming with all the accessories of wealth and prosperity.
**The total population of British Burma, by the census of
this year, amounts to 3,704,253 souls.* In order to show
the great increase in population which has taken place, it
may now be stated that in 1855-5G, the population
amounted to 1,252,555 souls. Probably the number may
then have been understated from defective returns; but^
even supposing that the deficiency reached to so much as
a quarter of a million, about one-fourth of the whole, the
fact will remain that, in a quarter of a century, the popu-
lation has nearly trebled. This, no doubt, has resulted
largely from immigration from Upper Burma; but the
people are also increasing from natural causes, consequent
on freedom for their industry, the absence of war, and, it is
believed, generally improved sanitary condition from better
food and clothing." These authoritative remarks, coupled
with what the present writer has already said on population
in this little work, as well as in his larger one, it is to be
hoped will go some way towards exhausting the interesting
subject.

We now turn to the latest information regarding the
revenue of British Burma, the increase in which is even
more remarkable than that of the population. " The amount
of imperial revenue — that is not including what is collected

* This is an increase of thirty-four per cent, since 1872. Rangoon
contains 132,004, and l^Iaulmain 46,472, an increase in the former of
thirty-six per cent., and in the latter of fourteen per cent.

158 ASBk PYEE.

by municipal rates — raised from this population amounted,
in 1879-80, in round numbers, to £2,100,000. That is a
far greater proportional amount than is paid by any other
province under the Government of India. It may, at the
same time, be noted that the amount collected in 1855-56
was, in round numbers, £531,792. While, therefore, in
twenty-five years, the population has nearly trebled, the
revenue has nearly quadrupled." This extraordinary in-
crease. Sir Arthur Phayre felt assured, " has resulted from
general increase of prosperity, and not from excessive tax-
ation." The only item on which the first Chief Commis-
sioner would wish to see a reduction in the annual revenue
is " on that arising from the consumption of opium. The
quantity consumed might be very much reduced by Govern-
mental action, with great advantage to the community," —
and, he adds: "I learn, within the last few days, that
measures have been adopted for that purpose.'' Thus, we
have the first dawn of local option, but of a different kind
to that already alluded to,* in British Burma. Opium-
eating and smoking will yet become a great Eastern ques-
tion ; and, doubtless, the same wise people at home who
style alcohol " the devil in solution,'' will name the former
drug '' the devil in pieces ! "

The next important subject for consideration, while
handling the question of progress in the prosperity of
British Burma, was '' the continued regular advance in the
area of cultivated land." To this reference has already
been made in a previous chapter ; but, bringing down the

* See introductory remarks to Chapter III, See also Note IV., on
"Opium in Burma."

SIB AETHUK PHAYEE ON BEITISH BUEMA. 159

Statistics a year or so later, the result seen in the following
figures becomes of remarkable interest. In 1855-56 the
total area of cultivated land paying revenue to Government
was 1,075,374 acres. In 1879-80 the area was 3,364,726
acres. The value of rice exported by sea was, in 1855-56,
£1,482,475; and in 1879-80, ^65,274,3 11. It must have
been highly gratifying to Sir Arthur to record such pro-
gress— a progress, it may be safely said, unexampled in the
colonial history of the British Empire. Let us suppose,
for a moment, that a similar degree of progress in the area
of cultivated land had taken place in Upper Burma and the
adjacent countries — to say nothing of their valuable mineral
and other resources — in 1881, would not the whole of Burma
really be deserving of the appellation of Ashe Pyee, the
superior country ? Statistics, like facts, are " stubborn
things," and cannot be got over by futile sophistry, or
lamentable indifference. Every Englishman should say of
British Burma, looking to the future. Sooner or later, next
to India, it must become '' the brightest jewel in the
British crown."

At a time when a Land Bill was demanding all the
intellect and energy of great statesmen to make it palat-
able at home, it was pleasant to hear a word or two from
Sir Arthur Phayre about land in Burma, which remarks
will render the brief information already given on the
subject by the present writer more complete.*

The very beginning is worthy of notice ; but as the
great Irish Land Bill will surely be passed, or become law

* See beginning of Chapter YII.

160 ash6 pyee.

before this little work is published, whatever useful matter
is contained in the following extract will be too late to give
a hint or add to the already overwhelming number of
amendments : — " The right of property in the soil is inde-
pendent to the governing power, and is so laid down in
Buddhist Scriptures. The average area of each estate on
which rice is raised is not more than seven or eight acres.
That is the area available for cultivation. Grazing-land is
that which is left wild round each village, and is common
to the landowners thereof. All owners exercise the right
of sale, lease, gift, and mortgage, though sale outright is
very seldom made. There appears to be an objection to
it, which may almost be called religious, irrespective of the
rights of heirs, which cannot be alienated ; and when land
is sold by deed, it is generally expressed that the object of
the purchaser is to build a pagoda or other religious
edifice thereon. This is supposed to justify the sale. Rice
land is occasionally let from year to year, on verbal agree-
ment, the tenant agreeing to pay ten per cent, of the
produce."

It is pleasing to think that there never has been, nor ever
will be, a Land League in Burma ! In respect of such **a
rapid fire,"* at least fair parts of the East are superior to
bright portions of the more civihsed West. Some Liberals
of the present day, and, doubtless, many Conservatives, will
be of opinion that a few cautious statesmen like Sir Thomas
Munro of yesterday, and Sir Arthur Phayre of to-day, with
vast Eastern experience, could have framed a good Land

* " A solid league — a rapid fire."— Gra«an.

SIE AETHUR PHAYEE ON BRITISH BURMA. 161

Bill at home, though wanting the finish of the master-piece
yet to come.

It was pleasing to hear it asserted by Sir Arthur Phayre,
that the development of commerce in British Burma " has
kept pace with the increase of population and cultivation."
The trade of the province " may be classed as ( 1 ) that
carried on by sea with foreign countries, and wuth British
India; and (2) that carried on by river navigation, or by
inland caravan traffic with independent Burma, China and
Siam." He compared the sea-borne trade of 1879-80 with
that of 1871-72 ; for both years all imports and exports of
goods on account of the Government being excluded. The
imports and exports for 1871-72 amounted to £8,249,558.
In 1879-80 they reached the large sum of JG 15,555,312.
{See also Chapter IV., on " Concurrent Commercial
Interests"; likewise Our Burmese Wars, &c., pages 314,
350,* 472.)

It was not considered necessary to do more than
mention the principal articles : — " The two of most im-
portance to the United Kingdom are the cotton and silk
piece-goods, the cotton twist and yarn of British manu-
facture. The value of those goods imported in the year
1871-72 amounted to £1,385,011, and woollen goods to
£88,372. In 1879-80, the value of the former amounted
to £2,006,453; and woollen manufactures to £225,915.
When I say these were of British manufacture, it should be
noted that, strictly speaking, 97 per cent, of the goods
were shipped from the United Kingdom. Considering the
population of British Burma small in comparison with
* Note on Revenue and Commerce, written in October 1879.

11

162 ASHi PYEE.

that of most provinces in British India, tJiis is a very large
proportional amount of annual consumption."

After the rice exports from British Burma, the value of
"which has already been given, *' the next article of
importance is teak timber, which is probably the most
valuable wood known for ship-building and industrial
purposes. There has been a considerable falling off in the
export of teak timber within the last five years. In 1875-76,
the value exported amounted tOaG432,389 ; and in 1879-80,
to only £273,967."

Sir Arthur Phayre's remarks on teak timber are very
valuable; and they must commend themselves to all
intelligent readers. It is always pleasing to gain infor-
mation of such a useful and practical character : —

" Teak timber exported is grown both in British territory and
beyond it. The teak forests in British Burma are the property of
Government, and are carefully conserved. No care appears to be
taken of those in Independent Burma, or in Siam, and it is to be
feared that the destruction now going on must in a few years render
it impossible to find large-sized timber in those countries, in such
positions as to be available for the market. In the districts of
British Burma, which were annexed in 1826, similar waste was
allowed. It was only in 1852, when experience had shown the
absolute necessity of guarding against indiscriminate felling of trees,
that the Marquis of Dalhousie issued orders for the formation of a
forest department in the province. First under Dr. McClelland, and
afterwards under the present Inspector-General of Forests in India,
Dr. Brandis, successful measures were adopted for the conservancy
of forests. This it was which led to the formation of a Forest
Department for all India, which it is now acknowledged has been of
vast benefit to the empire.

" The growth of teak trees in British Burma is secured partly by
planting in suitable localities, and by guarding against destructive
agencies all young trees whether planted or of natural growth. The
principal destructive agencies are : — Fire, which, in the dry season,
unless prevented, frequently spreads over hundreds of square miles,
and kills young trees ; parasitical plants ; and the method of clearing

SIK AKTHUB PHAYEE ON BEITISH BUKMA. 163

ground for cultivation on mountain slopes carried on by the hill
tribes, who indiscriminately fell trees and burn them in one mass.
The latter enemy to forest conservancy is, perhaps, the most difficult
to deal with, as there is great danger of exciting the ill-will of the hill
tribes by interference with what they have from time immemorial
considered their right. Great caution, therefore, is necessary, and
has been observed in carrying out measures necessary to check the
destruction of trees by that means. Teak trees which have arrived
at maturity, that is at the age of eighty to ninety years, are girdled
two or three years before they are intended to be felled. The rise of
the sap being thus intercepted, the trees die, and they become
thoroughly seasoned while still standing. They are then capable of
being floated down the streams and rivers without delay after having
been felled. During the last five years there has been a material
decrease in the yield of teah timber in the forests of British Burma.
This will be seen from the following table of the actual quantity
brought down during each year : —

Tons.

1875-76 46,597

1876-77 46,431

1877-78 39,081

1878-79 22,763

1879-80 17,585

" It must not be supposed that the diminution in the annual supply
brought to market indicates a diminution in the actual number of
mature, or full-sized teak trees existing in the forests. The reduction
proceeds from various causes, and it may be confidently pronounced
that the effect of the forest conservancy in British Burma has been
to render available for public use a valuable natural product, while
guarding against wasteful felling, which would, in a course of years,
extinguish the supply for future generations. Various other timber
trees are cared for in the forests of Burma, which it is not necessary
to enumerate. Cinchona trees have been planted, but the result, as
yet, has not been favourable."

Before proceeding with Sir Arthur Phayre's paper, it may
prove interesting to well-wishers of British Burma to learn
that, in a report* on forest conservancy in that country,'

* Drawn up by H. Leeds, Esq., Officiating Conservator of Forests,
British Burma.

11

164 ashI: pyee.

for 1863-64, there are some useful hints regarding forest
administration ; and in an order by the Government of
India thereon, it is said : — " The report exhibits the state
of forest administration in British Burma in a very satis-
factory light. The result of the eight years' working of a
strict system of conservancy is a surplus of 6j lakhs of
rupees (nearly £70,000), and the steady growth of the net
revenue gives promise of a continuation of this prosperous
state of affairs." Thus has prosperity in many phases
crowned British efforts in Burma — a strong argument in
favour of our giving every attention to that country.

As regards teak timber floated down the rivers into
British Burma from the neighbouring countries, the first
Chief Commissioner observed " that the quantity is about
four times that derived from forests in British territory.
But, as already stated, as no conservancy is exercised in
those countries, the supply, before many years, will pro-
bably be much reduced." To this it may be added that,
both in Upper or Independent Burma, and in Siam, King
Theebau and the young king of many names, would find it
greatly to their advantage to possess a well-organized
forest conservancy, for it would doubtless prove a strong
symptom of real progress in Chin-India ; while proud and
selfish monopoly's head would soon disappear if the two
mighty sovereigns of " earth and air" were to invite over a
band of scientific European miners to develop the re-
sources of their superior countries, when the concurrent
commercial interests of Great Britain and Burma, and even
Siam and China, would probably be established for ever !
The gold mania at present raging in southern India may,

SIR ARTHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 165

ere long, be succeeded by a more powerful one in India
beyond the Ganges.

" Other articles exported from Burma are cutch, cotton,
and petroleum."

Sir Arthur Phayre now alluded to one abundant natural
vegetable substance, which " promises to become utilized,
and to add to the products exported to other countries.
I allude," said he, '* to the manufacture of paper from
bamboo fibre, which has been undertaken by Mr Thomas
Koutledge. This enterprise will turn to good account a
plant which grows rapidly in every part of British Burma ;
and there are many tracts where plantations of it may be
farmed for the object in view. The material would be
exported in the shape of fibrous paper stock." — " All honour
to the man,'* says shrewd, philosophic old Carlyle, while
descanting upon Goethe, " who first through the inipass-
able paves a road ! " There will be more to say about
the manufacture of paper from the bamboo, and Mr.
Thomas Routledge, by-and-bye.

It must be of great interest to British merchants to learn
that "the inland trade of British Burma with Indepen-
dent Burma and the Shan States is only yet in its infancy ;
but it has made great strides within the last few years.
The progress during eleven years has been gradual, and is
shown by the following figures " : —

1869-70.

Value of exports £1,2^^3,588

Value of imports 905,308

Total 2,188,896

166 ASHi PTEE.

1879-80.

Value of exports .4^1,880,052

Value of imports 1,983,354

Total ... ... 3,863,406

In order to show the value of the inland trade of British
Burma in articles of British manufacture, and its progres-
sive increase in eleven years, the following statement of the
value of exports of textile and fibrous fabrics is given : —

1869-70.

1879-80.

Cotton piece-goods ...

^44,549 ..

,. Jei91,82l

Silk piece-goods

9,025 ..

168,936

Woollen piece-goods...

7,941 ..

43,524

Cotton twist and yarn

49,281 ..

157,924

Total

110,796 ..

562,205

After remarking that the great bulk of the trade with
Independent Burma is carried on by the river Irawadi, 8ir
Arthur Phayre considered the statement worthy of notice,
that, " notwithstanding the unsatisfactory state of the
relations of the British Government wit'i the Court of
Mandalay, trade between the two countries has not mate-
rially sufi'ered/^ This may be very true, comparatively
speaking, but it is hardly so in a progressive point of view.
Supposing our relations with Burma had been of the best,
and King Theebaii, since ascending the throne, had adopted
the principles of Free Trade, and even carried out the views
of a shrewd ]M.P. of the present day, " that treaties of com-
merce, instead of advancing Free Trade, tend to retard its

SIR ARTHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 167

progress,"* would not the results of the trade hetween
British and Upper Burma have been far greater ? " The
great object," Sir Arthur continued, "of establishing and
maintaining a direct trade with Yunnan has not been
accomplished. The main obstacle to success may be
attributed to the Chinese merchants settled in Burma, and
to the Chinese local authorities on the border. The oppo-
sition of the former arises from jealousy of foreigners, and
what every other people similarly circumstanced shows,
dread of losing a profitable trade."

A noble kindness towards the Burmese Government
comes forth in the succeeding remarks, which many will
admire, though others may be somewhat sceptical as to what
is said about Theebau's '' engagements " : — " On the whole
the Burmese Government has been faithful to its treaty
engagements with the Governor-General of India, and with
prudence and avoidance of aggressive conduct, which is
certainly not likely to arise from the Burmese Government*
there is no reason for doubting that the interests of both
countries, as regards friendship and commerce, will be
maintained." There is also, it may be added, no chance of
aggression on the part of our present Liberal Government.
The writer's opinion of King Theebau has not, however,
materially changed.

Turning now to the " Statement "t so ably compiled in
the India Office, it is there written in singular opposi-

* Mr. Agnew. M.P., writing on the subject of the French tariff,
June 1881.

t Exhibiting the moral and material progress of India during the
year 1878-79 ; ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 13th
September 1880.

168 ASHJE PYEE.

tion to Sir Arthur Phayre's remarks above quoted: —
''During the greater part of 1878-79, our relations with
Upper Burma were much strained, and trade was injuriously
affected" (page 113). Under any circumstances, there can
be no doubt as to *' the necessity of placing our relations
with the Court of Mandalay on a proper footing.""^ The
re-appointment of a Eesident at Mandalay has probably
long been under the serious consideration of Government ;
and when the time comes, it is to be hoped that King
Theebau will have undergone a complete moral revolution.
Without this, the renewed presence of patient diplomatists
at the capital will be utterly useless. The Golden Foot is
young; there are still hopes of him; and when such an
authority as the ever- zealous and successful first adminis-
trator of British Burma is of such an opinion, it is hardly
wise not to augur, even for King Theebau, something of a
bright future.

Sir Arthur Phayre next gave a sketch of the " means for
ready locomotion and conveyance of produce," as, of course,
*' directly connected with trade and all material progress."
When we first occupied the province, the rivers alone
afforded internal communication.

In Arakan and Tenasserim, rain was the Siva (destroyer)
of the roads. The " great annual rainfall constituted a
serious obstacle " to their construction and maintenance.
The prospect of return or benefit in a thinly-populated
country was remote.

Nothing was lasting, save that mighty highway of Pegu,

* See article on "British Burma," in Allen's Indian Mail, May
16th, 1881.

SIR AETHUR PHAYEE ON BRITISH BURMA. 169

the Irawadi, ever flowing on in silent majesty, heedless of
any progress but its own. " Made roads for wheeled vehicles
were unknown. Made lines of metalled road," modestly
remarked Sir Arthur, *' have, under the British Govern-
ment, been constructed, but only to a small extent. The
total length of these does not exceed five hundred miles.
The building of village and district roads to connect with
main lines will yet occupy many years. A railway has been
built from Rangoon to Prome, a distance of 163 miles.
The success of the line after four years has been greater
than could have been anticipated, considering the bulky
nature of the products to be carried, and the nearness of
the river to the line. The net earnings, by the last account,
were four per cent, on the outlay. The chief source of
profit appears to be by passenger traffic." Again, as re-
gards the navigation of the Irawadi by the steamers of the
Flotilla Company, it was satisfactory to hear that " it con-
tinues uninterrupted, notwithstanding occasional reports of
unfriendly relations with Independent Burma. In 1879-80,
there were made 129 trips up, and 121 down, between Ran-
goon and Mandalay." He was not aware of any trips
having been made to Bhamo — the famous mart already
mentioned (Chapter IV.), where Burmese and Chinese
influences commingle. A canal, to connect the Pegu river
with the Sittang, *' completes the water highway between
Rangoon and Toungoo, and is a great advantage to trade. "^
At this point of Sir Arthur Phayre's paper, it may be
observed that, at the end of last year a Report was pre-
sented to the Supreme Council, Calcutta, on the Bill " ta
regulate the navigation of the Pegu and Sittang canal, and

170 ASHjfc PYEE.

to provide for the execution of works necessary for its
maintenance. With increased navigation of the above
canal, and that afforded by the Pegu and Sittang rivers,
and the completion of a railway (alluded to by Sir Arthur),
from Rangoon to Toungoo (now, it is said, fairly taken in
hand), communication in British Burma will be vastly
augmented, not only in the interests of commerce, but also
in those of the security of the province. With a railway
from Rangoon to Prome on one side, and the newly-
projected line on the other, with the noble Irawadi, the
smaller rivers, and the numerous creeks, with which the
country abounds, at our disposal. Upper Burma, south-
western China, and even distant, but ever-approaching,
Russia — perhaps with a chosen legion of Tekke Turkomans,
under some future Skobeleff — would be fairly shut out from
successfully attempting a descent on Rangoon. *' The
■coast of British Burma, and the several ports, are well pro-
vided with lighthouses. There are seven, and one light-
vessel." Not the least remarkable information in this most
important paper, is that regarding the Irawadi embank-
ment, which may be here given entire : —

"Among remunerative public works, the embankment of the
Irawadi takes a prominent place. An exhaustive report thereon has
been made by Mr. Kobert Gordon, C.E., under whose direction the
works now are. The object of the embankment was to protect
cultivated and cultivable land from inundation. This has, to a
considerable extent, been effected. But as is to be expected in
dealing with a great river, having a rise of about forty feet when in
flood, and an extreme discharge in the rainy season, thirty miles
above the head of the delta, of two millions of cubic feet per second,
many complications have arisen, and the question of further
embankment is still under consideration. In the lower part of the
■delta there are some thousands of square miles which can be made

SIR AETHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 171

culturable by an embankment, and where the difficulty from the
destructive force of current is much reduced. Mr. Gordon has, with
reference to the periodical rise of the Irawadi, the rainfall in the
eastern Himalaya, and the discharge of water by the rivers entering
the Brahmapootra from the north, in Assam below Sadiza, concluded
that the Irawadi is the continuation of the Sanpo of Thibet. This is
one of the few great questions in the geography of Asia which has
still to be solved, and which has been a subject of controversy since
the time of d'Anville."

The next subject, especially to one who had held an
educational post in the country,* was of intense interest.

In the annals of Indian administration there is hardly
any subject so remarkable as Education in British Burma.
Take a report for any year, and there is always something
wonderful to tell — astonishing progress made by both stxes
of a most interesting class of the Mongolian race, caused
by a rare desire and aptitude for learning ; and all this is
carried on in Ashe Pyee with so little expense, and without
half the fuss or noise of more civilised countries, that in a
few years it is quite possible that not many of the popu-
lation will be perishing for lack of knowledge. What the
Board Schools have done for education at home, the Mon-
astic system — with the improvements grafted upon it by Sir
Arthur Phayre — has done for British Burma. A mighty
triumph over ignorance has certainly been accomplished.
True enough, before the British advent zealous American
and other missionaries had done their teaching work " ex-
cellent well ; " but the master-hand was wanting which was
to put the numerous odd pieces of the cabinet together, to

* Inspector of Government and Aided Schools in the three seaport
towns — Rangoon, Maulmain, and Akyab. The Inspector commenced
his duties on the 1st May, 1865, and submitted various reports.

172 ASHi PYEE.

delight and surprise the friends of universal progress. A
remarkable year for education in British Burma was 1865 ;
and, to say nothing of what the writer witnessed at the sea-
port towns, among other wonders, through our occupation
of the country, Dr. and Mrs. Mason — of whom America
may well be proud — had opened in that year a Karen Young
Men's Normal Institution, to train teachers for the moun-
tains of Toungoo, and a Karen Female Institute, at the
same place, for the instruction of the daughters of Karen
mountaineers. In the former institution the subjects
taught were the English and Burmese languages,
arithmetic, geography, drawing, land surveying, and the
study of the Holy Scriptures. Many of the boys could
survey well with the chain and crosb-stafl, while five of
them could use the prismatic compass, and the study of
plane trigonometry and the use of tlie sextant received every
attention. In Mrs. Mason's institute there were sixty-six
pupils at the examination of January 1860. On this
auspicious occasion, " Karen mountain chieftains sat for
the first time as judges, and awarded prizes to Karen young
women for attainments in scholarship. There were present
also, strange new visitors in nine Manu Manau chieftains
from beyond the eastern water-shed, and two Gaiko chiefs
from near the northern boundary. In all, there were forty-
one chiefs and elders present from the mountains, with
fifty students and jungle teachers.'' Here was at least one
grand educational result in Burma, achieved, nearly sixteen
years ago, by zealous workers, of a class too often labouring
on in distant lands " in the front of severest obloquy."
Sir Arthur Phayre, then, leaving the Irawadi, next

SIE ARTHUE PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 173

directed the attention of his hearers to a notice of the
present state of education in British Burma, the very com-
mencement of which is full of information, and well
deserving of attention by all Englishmen : —

" Elementary knowledge of reading and writing is more generally-
diffused among the people of Burma than is the case in India, and
even in some countries of Europe. This has resulted from the
fundamental principles of Buddhism. For the Buddhists, having
originally protested against Brahman exclusiveness in matters of
religion, and as regards the acquisition of knowledge by those out-
side their own body ; and having contended for the right of all to rise
by personal merit to ecclesiastical and secular eminence, and to
inherit a higher reward by transmigration, the doctrine led to a
general diffusion of instruction among the masses of the people.
Hence in Burma all the male children are taught letters ; the national
schools are the Buddhist monasteries, and the schoolmasters or the
directors of the studies are the rahans or monks. There are also in
some towns lay schools, in which both boys and girls are taught.
The rules of Buddhist monks prevent their teaching girls ; but female
education is, among the higher classes, carried on in families, as well
as in lay schools. The great importance of attention being directed
to the indigenous schools of British Burma will be seen from the
number of scholars in the monasteries and lay schools, the heads of
which have agreed to Government inspection. The number is
70,858 boys, and 3,330 girls."

'i'he medium of instruction in these indigenous schools
is the vernacular language of the country. In the majority
of instances the instruction does not go beyond the now
famous ** three R's " ; but a knowledge of arithmetic, so
dearly prized in England, is not considered of much
importance in the Burmese monasteries, as forming no part
of religious knowledge, from which the gifted Bishop of
Natal might take a salutary hint. "The object of the
Government in connection with the monastic schools has
been to avoid all interference with the religious teaching,
aud to induce the head monk of each monastery to admit

174 ashI: pyee.

inspectors, in order that the secular studies shall be more
systematically pursued, and the course be more advanced
than hitherto. For this purpose, elementary books on
arithmetic, geography, and other subjects, have been
supplied, and are used. The monastic schools are far
more numerous than the lay, there being in 1879-80, 2,693
of the former, to 355 of the latter." Of course, the chief
difficulty lay with the monastic schools ; but it appeared
to have been admirably overcome. In these, prizes were
awarded ; while the girls in the lay schools were " dis-
tinguished for their zeal and aptitude."

The Chief Commissioner (Mr. Aitchison) in his resolution
on the educational results of the year (1879-80) had
observed : — ** After some years of only partial success, the
Education Department has, mainly through the instru-
mentality of Burmese inspectors, got the teachers of
monastic schools to accept with gladness, which now seems
to be heartfelt, the visits, the inspection, and the guidance
of our educational officers." Success could only have been
attained, from first to last, in the opinion of Sir Arthur
Phayre, *' by a rare union of tact, discretion, and earnest
perseverance on the part of those to whom the work was
entrusted. For the result, the Education Department of
British Burma, under the direction of Mr. Hordern, may
well be proud."

In addition to the primary vernacular schools, and secon-
dary schools,* of the Missionary Societies, which receive
aid from Government, " the Government have also second-

* In which the English language is taught.

SIB ARTHUB PHATBE ON BBITISH BUBMA. 175

class schools in each district, while in Kangoon there is a
High School, which has lately been affiliated to the Calcutta
University. '^ Some of the pupils, we were informed —
doubtless with a feeling of pride on the part of him wha
had fanned the flame while in its infancy — " are now
reading for the First Arts examination.*'

The conclusion of the paper was in every way worthy
of the writer : — " Considering that the most populous part
of Burma, which furnishes the great majority of students,
has been a British possession for less than thirty years, it
may be pronounced that the advance made in sound
education has been satisfactory, and is evidence of the
capacity of the people, and their desire for improvement."
Sir Arthur Phayre had now placed before the Society of
Arts and an attentive audience, in which were men — a few
of them highly distinguished — of various callings, and of
many shades of opinion, " the several points in the present
condition of a people differing in race, in language, and in
religion, from the people of India " ; and he trusted that
the result would appear favourable to their moral and
material progress. " It is evident that the country

AND THE PEOPLE HAVE BEFORE THEM A GREAT FUTURE."

Let Great Britain look to this fact, enunciated by so high
an authority, and do all she can to benefit herself, India,
and Ashe Pyee, ere it be too late !

Of course the usual "' discussion " followed the reading
of Sir Arthur Phayre's paper. To not a few present, who
were met to join in it, a grand feature appeared to be the
utter abnegation of self displayed throughout the eventful
narrative. The everlasting I (so pleasant to minds of

176 ASHt PYEE.

small calibre), or the " Alone I did it ! " was quite out of
tha question. It was enough for others to know who had
done it nearly all. Like chivalrous Outram, he had shown,
in the various incidents of a stirring yet studious life, this
abnegation of self '* with an uncompromising resolve to do
his duty"; and the people of British — perhaps also aided
by those of Upper — Burma, in a few years, may think of
erecting a statue to the great Administrator, bearing on
the pedestal what has been said of Alexander Farnese,
Prince of Parma : " ' Untiring, uncomplaining, thoughtful
of others, prodigal of self, generous, modest, brave/"*

If we did not know that reticence was a valuable ingre-
dient in modern statesmanship, some present might have
been inclined to find fault with Sir Arthur for saying so
little regarding our relations with Independent Burma ;
but more would probably have been out of place in the
Society of Arts. As in all such cases, it was the authority
which made the paper chiefly valuable. And like a true
soldier, both as to time and materials, he stuck to his
marching-orders.

Sir Henry Norman, K.C.B., commenced the discussion
by happily remarking : — " To speak of Burma was to speak
of Sir Arthur Phayre ; for the two seemed to be inseparably
connected." Again : "He hoped the railway systems now
projected in British Burma would be carried out ; and he
was quite sure they would be not only profitable to the
State, but would conduce to the prosperity and progress
of the country."

* Quoted by Dr. James Burnes (brother of Sir Alexander) in March
1861, regarding Sir James Outram.

SIE AETHUE PHAYEE ON BEITISH BUEMA. 177

Mr. E. G. Man, in his eulogistic remarks, said, with
regard to the statement in the^ paper, " that there was •no
communication at present, and none last year, between
Mandalay and Bhamo, he believed steamers had been
running between these places up to the present time." He
could endorse every statement made with regard to the
destruction which had taken place amongst the teak
forests. He also alluded to education, and had not the
slightest doubt that there was a great future before
British Burma.

Mr. William Botly made a few interesting remarks " on
the influence of forestry on the climate and agricultural
interests of the country."

Mr. Pfoundes wished to know from Sir Arthur Phayre
more about the old literature of Burma, and " whether it
was much affected by the ancient Chinese, or by the more
modern Chinese under the Buddhist ; or if there were any
traces of old Arabic literature. He believed, also, there
was a wide field in Burma for anthropological investi-
gation."

Mr. Thomas Koutledge was very glad " to have an
opportunity of adding a few remarks to the very inter-
esting and instructive paper " just read. As these remarks
are of a highly novel and useful character — in an age of
paper as well as questions — they are given verhatitn, from
the Society's Journal, in the Notes (No. VI.). We should
all take an interest in the manufacture of paper from the
bamboo.

Mr. F. Barlow had just returned from a three months'
tour in Burma. He had evidently made the most of his

12

178 ASHfe PYEE.

time. " The Burmese were the most charming and inter-
esting people he ever saw, except the Japanese, whom, in
some respects, they much resembled." This versatile and
pleasant traveller seemed to have some tinge of the old
** age of chivalry" about him when he remarked, "the
women were exceedingly pretty, and dressed in the most
graceful and becoming way.'' As to the men, they were
" always cheery and nice, and you became friendly with
them at once ; very different from the natives of India/'
The following remark must have somewhat alarmed the
able and energetic paper manufacturer above mentioned : —
"Whether Mr. Routledge would get over the labour
diflBculty he did not know, but he never saw a Burmese
man work at all." The women did everything.

Mr. Barlow also said a word or two on the subject of
opium. He had seen its bad effects ; but it was a question,
he thought, " whether a total prohibition of opium in a
malarious country would be wise. It was probably a
useful drug in its way, and vrith it, as with most other
things, moderation would do no harm ; it was the excess
which did the mischief." Shortly before citing this remark,
a notice appeared in the papers that a lady in Lancashire
had indulged in laudanum to the extent of six ounces a
day I — leading us to think that anti-opium legislation was
even more required in England than in China or Burma.
This amusing traveller would hardly have found the men
" cheery and nice " had they indulged in too much opium.

Mr. Christian Mast had felt great pleasure in hearing
about a foreign country like Burma. To night they had
heard " that the real means of civilisation, namely educa-

SIB AETHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 179

tion, commerce, and trade, seemed to be employed in
Burma, and the rulers seemed also to enter into ibe spirit
of the people, and not to run counter to their inclinations."
He was much struck with the skill displayed by the
" Governor " in these respects. This intelligent native of
a foreign country — an Englishman by naturalisation — con-
sidered "the Buddhists were highly civilised, and their
civilisation was older than the English." In a few words
he brought forth the grand secrets of all our Colonial and
much of our Imperial greatness — knowledge of the people,
and conciliation.

Sir Arthur Phayre, in reply, said " he was glad to hear
it stated tha t steamers had gone up from Mandalay to
Bhamo last year as usual, as it showed the trade with the
frontier of China was likely still to go on, without any
further interruption. The time he alluded to was 1879-80,
when, according to his information, there had been no
steamers." With regard to the literature of the Burmese,
so far as he knew, " the ancient Burman literature had
not been influenced by China; but he spoke with great
diffidence. He believed the Burmese were taught letters
by Buddhist missionaries from India — probably from Gan-
getic India — but the present literature of the country might
be said to be derived almost entirely from the Pali litera-
ture of Ceylon. From that, a vernacular literature had
arisen ; much as, they might suppose, the literature of
England arose or had followed from the Latin used in
the Middle Ages. He had lately heard that remarkable
discoveries had been made as to the extent of the Pali lite-
rature. While he was in the country no researches were

12 •

180 ASHfe PTEE.

made on the subject; but within the last two years, a
German gentleman had been appointed Professor of Pali
in the High School of Rangoon, and he had made some
very remarkable discoveries as to Pali works existing in
the country, and also as to translations into Pali from the
Sanskrit, and again from that into the vernacular."

To these valuable remarks the writer would venture to
add, for general information, that the common language
of Ashe Pyee is called the Burman, and is written from
left to right in circular characters. The language in which
all the religious works of the Burmese are composed is
called the Pali, and is written in the Sanskrit character.
The Burmese use the palmira leaf, and for common pur-
poses the iron style. " Their religious and other books
of value are written with lacquer, or sometimes with gold
and silver, and the leaves are splendidly gilt and orna-
mented."*

Perhaps the most important part in the discussion was

taken by Sir Rutherford Alcock himself, when he brought

the experiences of a long and useful career spent in

Eastern lands to bear on the various subjects.

The Chairman said that, " so far as his information extended, and cer-
tainly what Sir Arthur Phayre had adduced confirmed the impression,
■whatever discussions there might have been at the time, or difference
of opinion as to Lord Dalhousie's proceeding in annexing the terri-
tory of Burma, the inhabitants had been only gainers by the process.
Not only had their numbers more than doubled, but the commerce
had quadrupled ; in fact, there appeared to be all the evidence of
improved government, and of the perfect freedom of development
necessary to the welfare of the people. Certainly, if they had any
doubts as to the mode of proceeding in different regions, it was a

• The Kev. A. R. Symonds.

SIB ARTHUB PHAYBE ON BBITISH BUBMA. 181

great satisfaction at least to know that there could be no question as
to the results on the welfare and happiness of the people that came
under our rule. Mr. Routledgehad given some very interesting facts
with reference to paper-making which had especially interested him,
the * bamboo ' being a very old friend of his. He had spent a great
many years in two countries where there was this singular state of
things. In China, where rags abounded, they never used a bit of rag
in paper, but it was entirely made of bamboo. In Japan, where also
they had abundance of rags — in fact, they were a perfect drug in the
market — they neither used them nor bamboo, of which they had
plenty also, but the bark of the mulberry-tree, with some twigs of
other shrubs. The bamboo paper, which was well-known to artists
many years ago, being specially favourable to fine proof impressions
from copper-plate, was called India paper, because it was brought
home in India ships ; but it was really China paper, and there it
existed to this day. That colossal empire, like other methageria,
moved very slowly, and had not shown the slightest disposition to use
either rags or mulberry bark. The bamboo paper had one objection,
that it was exceedingly perishable and brittle ; it tore with the
slightest effort, whereas that shown by Mr. Boutledge was cured of
this defect. Japanese paper also, though often as fine as cambric,
was almost as dif&cult to tear. Of course, both in China and Japan,
the paper was made for Indian ink, which, again, was really Chinese
ink. The Japanese, with their marvellous development of industry
in the last ten or twelve years, had now got various paper-mills on
the European pattern, and made a good deal of paper entirely of
rags or rag mixed with other ingredients. The Chinese, on the other
hand, went on making their bamboo paper as they did 3,000 years
ago, and for aught he could see, would go on doing so for another
thousand years. Mr. Kentledge's bamboo paper was much superior in
many respects to that of the Chinese, though they had been using it
so long. He supposed it would be necessary to have crushing
machinery wherever the chief supplies might be drawn from, in
order to reduce the bamboo to some manageable condition for
freight."

The following concluding remarks by Sir Kutherford
on the subject of bamboo are very graphic and
forcible : —

•' The Chinese were rocked in bamboo cradles when they were
young, fed with bamboo, and beaten with it when they were growing

182 ASHi PYEE.

up ; they lived under it in their houses, and, in fact, without bamboo
one could Scarcely understand how a Chinese population could exist."

It is SO, but in a lesser degree, with the Burmese. The

learned Chairman continued : —

•' There did not appear to be any trace of race hatred or religious
fanaticism in Burma, to prevent harmony between subjects and
governors, as there were in China, where missionaries were con-
tinually being massacred, and their houses burnt over their heads.
He had not heard of anything of that kind in Burma, and he pre-
sumed the Burmese were a more easily governed race, or had less
race prejudices. They must all rejoice at the great progress which
Burma had made under the auspices of Sir Arthur Phayre ; and, in
conclusion, he would propose a cordial vote of thanks to him for the
very excellent and interesting paper which he had given them."

More appropriate remarks than these could not have been
uttered by any other public man ; and the hearers of tJie
distinguished Chairman were quite alive to their truth and
merit.

Sir Joseph Fayrer, F.R.S. — who was serving at Rangoon
in 1853, from which capital the present writer had marched
northward not long before young Ensign VVolseley (Sir
Garnet) first distinguished himself by leading the storming
party at Donnabew* — said " he was aware it was not usual

to second the vote of thanks on these occasions "

He could " hardly express the great pleasure it gave him
to be present that evening, when he thought of twenty-
eight years ago, at which period he had the honour of
serving in Rangoon with Sir Arthur Phayre, the latter
being the first Commissioner and he the first Medical
Officer. At that time he could hardly have anticipated
that at so distant a period he should have had the great

* March 19th, 1853. See Our Burmese Wars, dx., p. 276.

SIR ARTHUR PHAYRE ON BRITISH BURMA. 183

gratification of seeing Sir Arthur looking in such excellent
health, and of hearing from him so gratifying an account
of the country he had so admirably governed. The popu-
lation had been doubled, probably more than doubled ; the
revenue had been quadrupled ; everything had prospered.
The nation was happy and contented, and had preserved
its individuality. Its religion was undisturbed ; the people
had been peaceful and contented throughout the whole of
that part of Burma which had had the good fortune to be
under British rule. They might, indeed, congratulate Sir
Arthur Phayre upon this state of things, as no one could
doubt that it was mainly due to his administration."

The vote of thanks passed unanimously, and the pro-
ceedings terminated.

Long will this eventful meeting of the Society of Arts
be remembered, as it may be termed the first really great
public effort to draw attention to Burma — Ashe Pyee, the
superior country — the future seat of British enterprise in
the East.

184 ASHfe PYEB.

MISCELLANEOUS KECOED.

(From February to October 1881.)

Having led the knowledge-seeking English reader thus
far in Ash6 Pyee, the author believes that now, in spite of
■what has been styled " a various and abundant crop of
anxiety," — Ireland, the Transvaal, and Central Asia — he
will be interested in some occasional notes, chiefly on
Burmese affairs; while, should he be that " man so various,''
an English politician, he may be able to pick up some-
thing worth making a note of, which he may produce before
or on the realisation of a bright future in store for Burma.
King Theebau and the English Nurse. — King
James I. had a very kindly feeling towards his old nurse.
Sir John Malcolm, also, never forgot the services of that
truly domestic functionary, who had actually brushed him
up for appearance before the mighty Court of Directors.
An English nurse in King Theebau's family must have had
a rare opportunity of acting the part of a female Theo-
phrastus with reference to the Golden Foot, that generally
wayward child of a larger growth. Although not his " old
nurse," the King must have had some regard for her.

MISCELLANEOUS EECOED. 186

Early in February it was announced that this fearless nurse
in the Eoyal Family of Burma took a more favourable view
of King Theebau than previous visitors to Mandalay had
brought back. She ovvned he drank to excess, but he
never seemed much the worse, and he was always kind,
except when he got angry. On this it was shrewdly, but
severely, remarked : — " Unfortunately, his fits of anger are
very frequent, while his conduct is so bad^ at the best of
times, that it could scarcely be worse under any circum-
stances." It is to be hoped that the young King will have
become *' slow to anger," as well as a Free Trader, before
the re-establishment of a British Resident at Mandalay.
Probably, during the English nurse's residence, the loss of
Pegu, and all his fine ports, preyed on the Golden Foot's
mind with greater force than they would do now, and hence
one chief and constant source of irritation ; but, as Lord
Dalhousie said, Pegu is irrevocably ours, the domestic
record above given may lead some able judges to think
ihat the wisest step which could be taken by King
Theebau, when His Majesty might have an opportunity of
mastering the intricacies of Free Trade, Fair Trade, Pro-
tection, or Reciprocity — all versus Monopoly* — would be
to throw himself and his kingdom into the arms of the
great and wise, and humane and liberal nurse, Britannia.

Gossip from Rangoon. — Gossip, when not too idle or
ill-natured, is a pleasant thing, and has frequently presented

* That is, iu the Burmese, or Golden Foot, sense of the word ;
although, according to Sir W. Lawson, England was only saved from
revolution by sweeping away the system of " Protection, Monopoly,
and Cruelty."— Sept. 1881.

186 ASHfe PYEE.

valuable materials to the historian and the essayist.
Shortly after we became settled in Rangoon, or following
its capture (April 1852), the gossip of the camp formed an
abundant source of amusement and information. Without
it there could have been neither book nor newspaper.
Nearly thirty years have, perhaps, made little difference in
the gossiping propensities of Rangoon, much to the satis-
faction of able newspaper correspondents and others, who
now retail the favourite article, from the Liverpool of Chin-
India, with unceasing vigilance, for the benefit of mankind.
The " very age and body of the time " cannot be given
without a certain share of gossip. At the beginning of
February it was reported in London that H M.'s 77th
Regiment had arrived in Burma from Madras, to relieve the
89th, which had been about two years at the fiontier and
three in Rangoon. A popular journalist, evidently not
averse to gossip, follows up this announcement by an
amusing illustration of what he considers " the curious
kind of convenience and economy aimed at and secured in
the management of things military, as mentioned by the
Rangoon correspondent of the Lahore paper, in connection
with the arrangements for conveying the 77th Regiment to,
and the 89th Regiment from, Burma" According to the
worthy Rangoon purveyor of news for the Punjab, the 89th,
about to embark for Vingorla, had a detachment at Port Blair
(Andaman Islands). " For some sapient reason the Tenas-
aerim steamer, which was to have called at Port Blair and
dropped a detachment of the 77th and picked up the 89th
men, was ordered to come on straight to Rangoon. It
might save trouble if she took a detachment of the 77th,

MISCELLANEOUS KECOED. 187

called at Port Blair on her way to Vingorla, and took on
the 89th men with their regiment, but that would give too
little trouble, so she is to go straight to Vingorla, the 77th
detachment is to be sent out from Rangoon by a small
steamer, and the H9th brought back to find their comrades
gone." And then, according to this gossiping yet severe
critic, the 89th men were to be forwarded on to ]?elgaum,
"by the longest route that could be found for them/'
Doubtless, many officers of long service, in India and else-
where, have experienced trials of temper from mistakes
similar to the above, which — be the case in point wholly
true or not — like an ill-judged time for marching, or an
inefficient manner of moving troops, must sometimes occur,
especially in working the complex machinery of our vast
Eastern empire. Again, about the same time, " The famous
Yandoon order, or proclamation, stopping the sale of
glutinous rice, vermicelli, pickled fish, &c., on account of
there having been some cases of cholera, has been re-
scinded by the Chief Commissioner of Burma, and the
author of it told to confine himself to his legitimate duties,
of which interference with the food of a whole people is
certainly not one." Still, the origin of the order has its
humane point of view, as it is well known, when cholera is
about, the consumption of suspicious rice, pickled fish, or
fish paste [ngapee), tends to invite destruction by the pitiless
and ubiquitous " angel of death " in the East.

Valuable exploring information now breaks forth through
the aid of gossip. Educate ! was Lord William Bentinck's
grand panacea for the ills of India and the Hindus. If he
were among us at the present time it is difficult to say how

188 ASHfe PYEE.

far he would be satisfied with the result. Explore ! should
certainly be the cry in Chin-India; for without fearless
exploration we shall never be able to give fair-play or fair
trade to commerce in the East. The Pioneers Rangoon
correspondent writes : —

" I am glad to hear that one of the results of the protracted stay
of a gentleman connected with the Bombay-Burma Trading Corpora-
tion in Mandalay is likely to be the exploration of the Chindwih river
in a steam-launch. The Burmese Government have given their
sanction to the trip, but as it is said their authority does not extend
very far inland from the course of the river, it will not be altogether
a trip without danger. The Chindwin river flows into the Irawadi
near Myinjan, and from the large body of water discharged it is
thought it must be navigable for a long distance from its mouth.
Unfortunately, the wild Kachins who live about these parts have a
bad name for cunning and cruelty. Eeveuue is collected from them
by the Burmese with great difficulty, and reprisals are not unknown.
If they take it into their head to annex the exploring launch when she
anchors, as she must do to get fuel, it will not be easy to get out of
the difficulty. But with the danger and difficulty attending the
exploration, there will of course be the honour and glory of being
successful pioneers of trade and civilisation ; and with the example
of Stanley in Africa, the first navigator of the Chindwin will doubtless
be able, by a happy combination of the suaviter in modo with the
fortiter in re, to set at rest for ever the question of the navigability or
otherwise of this important river. It is to be hoped a surveyor will
accompany the launch, so as to be able to map the route of the
steamer."

Nothing important came of all the foregoing hopes and
aspirations, however; so we must just have patience. In
»Sir Arthur Phayre's opinion, the chief essential for extend-
ing the commerce of Chin-India is exploration ; and the
British Chambers of Commerce must, therefore, throw
themselves more heartily into the subject. We have not
only got Russia to contend against, but, in her dreams of
colonial power, Germany as well. Great nations are only
now beginning to find out the value of colonial power.

MISCELLANEOUS BECOBD. 189

The Force in British Burma. — A high authority in
military matters wrote about the middle of February : —

" As the British Resident has been withdrawn from the capital of
the King of Burma, and as the Chief Commissioner of British Burma
is of opinion that Theebau's troops need inspire no dread, the garrison
there is to be reduced. The Madras Times learns that a force of 2,000
British infantry and 3,500 Native infantry, besides artillery and sap-
pers, is considered sufficient for keeping the peace of the country, and
for repelling possible attacks. This garrison of 5,500 infantry will
not answer in case it should ever become necessary to move a hostile
force upon Mandalay. In this case the Commissioner is of opinion
that additional Native battalions will have to be sent from India, The
re-distribution of the Madras Native regiments in British Burma will,
in future, stand thus : — One regiment in Rangoon, one regiment in
Moulmein with two companies at Port Blair, two regiments at Thay-
etmyo and Allanmyo, and one regiment at Toungoo. The removal of
the 44th Foot to Madras has been deferred for the present, and when
it is withdrawn, there will be left in Burma the 77th and 43rd Foot^
together with four batteries of artillery."

Even more important than the necessary force for British
Burma are the military qualifications of the officer com-
manding it. He must not he an old man. nor even one
well on in years, to stand the climate. He must not be a
very young and venturesome general, or his longings after
Mandalay, and even Pekin, may be, in these days of peace
and non-annexation, of an unpleasant character. But he
must be a middle-aged, practical warrior — if possible, one
who has seen something of Burmese warfare — a near dupli-
cate of the Cabul and Candaharhero, Sir Frederick Roberts,
to serve in a far more interesting country than Afghanistan,
with a visage on which we can read at least something of
the famous inscription under Warren Hastings' picture in
Calcutta — even more required in a great general than in a
great civilian — me?is cequa in arduis. There is every pro-
bability, before very long, of some most important move-

190 ASHi PTEE.

ments taking place in Eastern Asia, which will throw action
everywhere else in our Eastern empire completely into the
shade ; so let us always be prepared for an emergency in
which a mere revolution in Mandalay may only play a small
part. It has been well said that it is dangerous to argue
probabilities ; but there can be no harm in arguing in favour
of constant preparation and circumspection in *' India
beyond the Ganges/'

Our Political Resident in Mandalay. — On the 25th
February, in the House of Commons, Lord Hartington
stated, in reply to Mr. R. Fowler, that there was no imme-
diate prospect of our Political Resident being reinstated in
Mandalay. [The withdrawal of the British Resident from
Mandalay — for some time an expected event — took place
on the 6th of October 1879, under instructions from the
Indian Government. See Our Burmese Wars^ dec, pages
426, 466].

Cotton Duties. — The Governor- General of India
extended the exemption from all Custom's duties notified
on March 13, 1879, to the class of grey cotton piece-goods
containing no yarn of higher number than thirties, except
in the border. This notification, published in London at
the end of February, took effect on February 1 0th. Pro-
bably, King Theebau, when reading such an announce-
ment, said to himself: '* What a strange Government to
take off any possible duties, instead of laying them on as
I do ! " But John Bull has not yet taught the Golden
Foot the grand lesson of the universal producing and satis-
fying power of Free Trade. Should he eventually master
the *' burning question,'' and assist us in exploration and

MISCELLANEOUS EECOKD. 191

commerce, surely all his past sins will be forgiven. But
to teach King Theebau such a lesson will be difficult, as
the Golden Foot, '* true to his cloth, would not reduce
his frontier duties, nor forego any one of his monopolies."
— Oar Burmese Wars, (fc, page 381.

MuNNiPooR. — GrARROW HiLLS. — Towards the end of
March, it was published that the Indian Government
might be called upon to assist the Raja of Munnipoor
(Munipur) in repelling an invasion threatened by the Bur-
mese. In anticipation of such service, a wing of the 10th
Native Infantry, then at Shilong (the sanitarium of Assam,
in the centre of the Jynteah hills), which was under orders
to proceed to Benares, had been directed to stand fast, so
as to set free the 44th Native Infantry, to advance into
Munnipoor. The 34th Native Infantry in Cachar had
been ordered to hold 300 men ready to move. As a
reward for good service rendered by the above Raja during
the late Naga campaign, and on previous occasions, we
could never render too much assistance to the chief ot this
plucky little independent* 'kingdom, lying between Burma
and Assam. The Munnipooreans, or people of Cassay,
are much prized as clever workmen ; and owing to their
superior skill in the management of the horse,t the Bur-
mese cavalry in the first war was almost exclusively com-
posed of them. Away, in a north-westerly direction, we
come to the Naga, the Cossyah and Jynteah, and the

* Munnipoor was constituted an independent country by the
British, in order to form a neutral territory between our frontier and
that of Burma.

t Munnipoor is the original home of the game of Polo. — See Imperial
Gazetteer of India, vol. iv. p. 516.

192 ASHfe PYEE.

Garrow hills. At the same time that MuDnipoor was
threatened, disturbaoces broke out among the Garrows (or
Garos), who were reported to be in open rebellion; and a
strong body of police was ordered to the hills in conse-
quence. So far back as 1835, this remarkable tribe* was
described by Howard Malcolm. Formerly numerous, they
became reduced by their warlike habits. Their territory
was then about 130 miles long, by thirty or forty broad,
and they raised large quantities of cotton, and carried on
a considerable trade with the English. Their houses are
built on piles, like the Burman ; and although the women
do much servile work, they have a voice in all public busi-
ness, and, according to the above missionary, " possess
their full share of influence." It is not improbable that
some female agitator among them, as if taking an example
from the West, was at the bottom of the rising in the Gar-
row hills. Having thus touched on a part of our eastern
frontier, it may also be recorded that, at this time, the
Government of India "decided on the retention of the
Angami Naga country, lately annexed." It may here be
remarked that, some eight or nine years ago, during the
Looshai expedition, the present writer was bold enough to
advocate that, in order to keep watch on Upper Burma, we
should possess all the country bordering thereon towards
India, which it was thought would be the best means of
preventing any restlessness or intrigue among the frontier
tribes being caused by the Burmese. Even the Looshais,
it is said, are now being " pressed up " into Cachar by

* Some most excellent papers on the Hill and Frontier Tribes of
Assam, have been recently published in the Homeward Mail.

MISCELLANEOUS EECORD. 193

tribes advancing upon them from Independent Burma,
which action must be a frequent cause of anxiety to the
Chief Commissioner of Assam and his political ofiBcers. —
(For some information regarding the Looshais and the
Nagas, see Our Burmese Wars, dc, page 420).

Uniform for the Burmese Troops. — Information also
reached us in March that the first instalment of the Euro-
pean-made uniforms for King Theebau's " Invincibles "
arrived at Mandalay on the 31st January. They were con-
sidered to be after the pattern of the Italian army.
" Indeed/' adds the Rangoon Gazette, " it would not be
surprising if they were found to be cast-off raiments of
the Italian army, cleaned up nicely, as they understand how
to do in Europe. All the same, they will doubtless pass
as new." The Burmese, like ourselves in a great measure,
have long been strange in the matter of costume, civil and
military. Let the reader turn to the first edition of Major
Snodgrass' narrative of the Burmese war, published in 1827,
by the famous John Murray, for whom Lord Byron clomb
up Pindus, and who said that " every man had a book in
him." The frontispiece represents (in a rough wood-cut) a
meeting of the British Commissioners at Neoun-Ben-Zeik,
the principal figure being the Kee-Wonghee, or Prime
Minister. Nothing can be more absurd or fantastical than
the appearance of this mighty personage. It is a gigantic
specimen of humanity, his chest covered with embroidery,
in his right hand a long patriarchal staff or club, his left
reposing on a rich, probably gold and silk, waistband, the
skirts of a rather theatrical costume, calculated to show off
his height, reaching to his knees only, the head surmounted

13

194 ashIi ptee.

by an extraordinary helmet, ^^somewhat after the German
fashion, with a long spike at the apex, from which seems
to fly something like a small flag, denoting his supremacy.
This helmet is variously worked, with a scolloped rim, and
has a chin-strap well down on the neck instead of on the
chin. In his rear are assembled British officers and Burmese
officials and soldiers, all of whom, especially the British,
it is evident from the Kee-Wongyee's severe countenance,
he has just been surveying with the supercilious sneer of a
high Burmese scorn. The British officers of rank, wear-
ing huge cocked hats, coatees with epaulettes, and swords,
and looking uncomfortable, are ranged on the right of the
temporary building of the Grand Assembly (near Prome) ;
while on the other side are the Burmese Commissioners in
dresses of somewhat the same pattern as that of the Kee-
Wongyee, but more humble, and in their rear the umbrella
and spear bearers, with a few military officers in grotesque
costumes, as a sort of guard of honour. Such is an imperfect
sketch of fifty-six years ago. Now that Italian uniforms
(and, doubtless, other) have got to Mandalay, we may
expect from Ashe Pyee, ere long, aided by wonderful
Japan, a lesson in the art of military dress. — (For a remark
or two on Burmese costume and equipment, see Our
Burmese Wars, dc, page 405.)

The Naga Tribes. — As a record of what actually
occurred in March, lovers of such subjects may be glad
to read that, on the 8th of the month, at a meeting of the
Anthropological Society in London, Colonel Woodthorpe,
R.E., read an interesting paper on the Naga tribes. He
touched briefly on the supposed derivations of Naga, none

MISCELLANEOUS BECORD. 195

of which he said were satisfactory or important, " as the
word * Naga ' is unrecognised by any of the tribes except
as a name given the tribes inhabiting the plains ; and
went on to state that the Naga race might be briefly
divided into two great sections, the kilted, or Angamis,
and the non-kilted, including all the other tribes; and
that though the latter diJBTer among themselves in many
minor particulars, yet there was a general family resem-
blance, whereas the Angami differs from all the other tribes
in every way, personal appearance, dress, customs, method
of cultivating the land, and, as far as it is known, in lan-
guage, which probably would be found to be the only safe
guide in determining ultimately to what family of the human
race these Naga tribes generally belong." Jn these anti-
drinking, anti-opium, and anti-smoking days, the following
observations are interesting : — "Very few among .the An-
gamis smoke, but all are great drinkers of a fermented
liquor which they brew from rice, no Angami being seen
without a mug of this beer in one hand, from which he
takes constant sips, either through a reed or with a bamboo
spoon, all day long/' ^ This may be considered as fine
an example of personal, if not local oj)tion, as could well
be desired. And, as to the great temperance movement in
England — headed by so many distinguished philanthro-
pists— should such an engine of reform ever want an

* This is hardly worse than, if so bad as, the state of a Highland
glen, some five-and-twenty years back, when an M.P. (for Glasgow)
declared, to the amusement of the House, he knew of such a glen,
where •• not one, or two, or three, of the glen got drunk ; but the
glen got drunk altogether."

13 •

196 ashI; pyee.

illustration of excess in poor humanity, the would-be orator
for the million will hardly be able to jBnd a more devoted
toper than the Angami Naga.

Russia and China. — There has, for a long time, been
something mysterious in the relations between Russia and
China. In time, the Flowery Land will gain information
which will be of use to it ; for so much diplomatic busi-
ness with the great Northern Power must result in a prac-
tical knowledge of the Russian motto — Znaj Rus Kayo*
An acute military chronicler wrote in March of the present
year, that, " notwithstanding the improved relations between
Russia and China, warlike preparations are still being made
by both Powers." The strange feature in such proceedings
was considered to be, that the Russians should have selected
Shanghai as the most suitable port for fitting out some of
their war- vessels with torpedo netting beams. Again, ** the
Chinese, on their part, not satisfied with our naval archi-
tects, who have given them their admirable * Alphabetical '
gunboats, are employing the Germans to furnish them with
another class of vessels — larger than gunboats and smaller
than corvettes — built for speed and little draught of water."
The latter qualifications are indispensable in all steamers
built for service in the rivers of Eastern Asia. Russia and
China, ere long, will be as familiar in people's mouths as
Russia and Turkey and Russia and Merv are at the present
time.

CoREA. — About the same time, Corea began to occupy
slight public attention. The extensive peninsula of Asia,

• Know the Russian.

MISCELLANEOUS RECORD. 197

between China and Japan, has long been unknown to our
countrymen, the exclusive and suspicious character of the
people rendering it difficult to get at them. Corea, how-
ever, would now seem to have a bright future before it;
and it should not be neglected when we consider that here
can be got wheat, rice, iron, paper made of cotton, and
numerous otlier useful productions. As with Burma, the
Prince of Corea is a vassal of China. Their customs are
chiefly Chinese ; but their language is different. They are
infinitely more Chinese than the Burmese The rapid pro-
gress of Japan has begun to teach the Coreans that they
may as well be of use to mankind while they live. Thus
civilisation at the present day may be said not unfrequently
to flourish by example. It was thought that the ubiquitous
Russians were going to establish themselves on the coast
of Corea, with the .view of developing their empire in the
Pacific. But England will surely look to such intentions
in good time. With the French at Tonquin, the Russians
in Corea, and the Germans where the great Prince may put
them before he shuffles off this '* mortal coil," our Eastern
Empire might suffer by competition from such Powers.

Burmese Dupes. — Early in April, many English readers
were entertained by a remarkable case from the land of the
Golden Foot, which was said to be " probably unique in
the annals of the law." There are dupes in Burma as
well as in England, where, occasionally, the

" pleasure is as great
" Of being cheated, as to cheat ; "

and the victims of thimble-riggers and card-sharpers find
their match in Ashe Pyee. The incidents are characteristic

198 ash6 pyee.

enough, and may here be briefly stated : A tattooer, by
name 8ayah Oung Ban, offered to give a charmed life to
three Burmans, by tattooing them with a certain device
which would defy injury to tneir persons. Neither sticks
nor stones to assail them, nor cords to bind them, would,
under this device, have any effect. They paid four rupees
for the gift, and furnished a suitable off'ering of cocoa-nuts
and plantains for the Nats. They were to be tattooed on a
running stream ; and for this purpose the party went into
a boat lying in a creek. After the operation, the dupes
were told that they were now quite safe, and that even if
bound with cords, and thrown into the river, nothing could
befall them The cords would come adrift of themselves.
Two of the Burmans were sceptical, but Oung Ban bound
the third with cords— the dupe having strong faith in
Sayah. Bound hand and foot, he was pushed off" the prow
of the boat into the creek, about ten feet deep. They
watched for his re-apptaiiince, *' but were disappointed
naturally," while the Sayah's j.rK^raplice made off" at full
speed, and had not been apprehended wl^en the case was
published.

Kailway and Telegraph in China. — In the first quarter
of 1881, it was fully believed that the difficulties between
China and Russia had been settled. The Russian squadron
in Chinese waters had been ordered to disperse, and five
additional vessels that had been ordered to China had
received instructions to return to Russian waters. It was
stated tliat the war scare — extended over so many months
— would have one highly beneficial effect. Within the next
two or three years, there was to be a railroad between

MISCELLANEOUS BECORD. 199

Tientsin and Pekin.* The construction of an overland
telegraph line was another remarkable innovation among a
people " unchangeable in the midst of change." It was
sanctioned from Tientsin to Shanghai ; and there was good
ground for supposing that before long the railway would
find its way to the capital of the Chinese Empire. When
China begins to thoroughly understand the value of the
rapid transit of troops in times of war and rebellion, and
the vast importance of sending messages by " the wings of
the wire,'* it will be high time to take more interest than
we do in the affairs of Eastern Asia. Meanwhile, we are
wisely doing our best to perfect the railway and the
telegraph in British Burma.

The Opium Traffic— On Friday, the 29th of April,
there was a discussion in the House of Commons on the
opium traffic. The argument was, of course, that England
should not sell to the Chinese " a drug which, when con-
sumed too freely, does harm to the human constitution."
The tendency to exaggeration, among philanthropists, on
this question is really very sad, for, as has been before
remarked (Chapter III.), excess in anything is bad, par-
ticularly in tobacco, wines, and spirits. With the opinions
of a writer in a popular evening journal, under the head of
'* The Opium Craze," it is impossible not to agree ; it was
pleasing to see what the present writer had previously said
corroborated by so able a journalist. Because men, east or
west, cannot practise self-denial, are some of the good

* After the destruction of the Woosung line, a few years ago, there
seemed but little hope of hearing the snort of the iron horse in China.

200 ASH^ PYEE.

things of this world, which a kind Providenoe has furnished,
to he entirely set aside ? Is it likely, if teetotalism were
really a rational institution, that the mighty Founder of
Christianity, and the great Apostle of the Gentiles would,
respectively, have turned water into wine, and recommended
its use ? To be moderate and sober in what we eat and
drink, and thereby crown our lives, is not less wise a maxim
than *' He that resisteth pleasure crowneth his life ; " but
such can never be interpreted to mean that an Oriental may
not consume his piece of opium, or an European not enjoy
his glass of ale or wine. A gentleman, who can say a
really good thing, recently remarked to the writer, who,
in the capacity of what Charles Lamb styles " a lean
annuitant," was enjoying his lunch, consisting of bread,
cheese, and -ale, that such a simple repast was excellent
•'for brain power." If such be so, Messrs. Bass and
Allsopp most assuredly deserve the thanks of the present
generation for increasing the extent of such a valuable
human commodity, the good effects of which will surely
descend to generations yet unborn. But to return to the
London journalist. With reference to India's opium trade
with China, if it ceased to-morrow the " morality " of the
Chinese would not be improved thereby. " Opium is now
consumed largely in parts of the Celestial Empire to which
no foreign imports ever peneti'ate ; and it is also a fact,
established beyond controversy, that the indigenous manu-
facture of the drug grows year after year. If, therefore,
England were to agree to sacrifice many millions of the
revenue of India by abolishing the trade, the only result
would be to cause an enormous development of the local

MISCELLANEOUS KECORD. 201

manufacture." Would it not be better, then, to " leave
well alone " in this matter, at least for the present ? Of
course, it would be well that the Chinese should grow more
cotton — especially in south-western China — and less opium,
to increase a trade which it is to be hoped will be opened
up to us ere long ; but when the exclusive barrier is fairly
broken down, that will surely come, civilisation following
hard after the change, just as the tone of an Enghshman's
house is improved by having a fair proportion of books,
pictures, newspapers, and music therein, and not an excess
of meat or drink. As to the opium traffic in Burma (See
Note IV.), even were the Indian Government less anxious
than they are to prevent its abuse, there is little to be feared
in the matter. The Phongyees and the spread of education
are safe-guards of no ordinary importance against excess.
Although, as an able reviewer well remarked, we hold Pegu
by the " simple fact of being there," we certainly have not
made the people either drunkards or excessive opium-eaters.
Strong drinks are, perhaps, more relished in Upper than in
Lower Burma, and in China they are even more in favour
than in the land of the Golden Foot. A famous " politi-
cal " aud traveller in the Flowery Land relates an amusing
instance of Chinese liking for cherry-brandy. But an
example of colloquial circumlocution may first be given,
showing what a wide circuit words had to make before
reaching the proper comprehension. The Colonel (for he
was of that rank) spoke in the language of Hindustan to
a Mussulman who understood Burman. He delivered it to
a Burman who spoke Chinese. *' This Burman gave it to
the first official domestic, who repeated it to his master in

202 ASH^ PYEE.

the Chinese tongue." The Colonel continues : " Our wines,
port, claret, and madeira, all excellent of their kind, were
served up ; these, however, were too cold for Chinese
palates. My visitants did not seem to relish them ; but
when cherry-brandy was introduced, their approbation was
manifested by the satisfaction with which each of them
swallowed a large glassful of the liquor." Even from this
showing, it is plain that the Chinese are fond of spirits as
well as opium. In Upper Burma, we know there is a liking
for the former, or both. It is probable that if opium became
difficult to procure, European wines and spirits would soon
have a good sale on the river, but especially at Mandalay,
From spirits to wine or ale, would be a grand step of reform-
ation, for spirits are even more injurious to the Oriental con-
stitution than opium. Since the departure of our Resident,
King Theebau, while musing over his isolated position, and
occasionally thinking what a good thing it would be to get
on well with the English, has frequently relished his glass
of good wine, shouting forth to his admiring and, perhaps,
jovial councillors, in the language of the Persian poet,
Hafiz, to the " lovely maid of Shiraz " : —

" Boy, let yon liquid ruby* flow,
And bid thy pensive heart be glad,
Whate'er the frowning zealots say ;
Tell them their Eden cannot show
A stream so clear as Rocnabad,
A bow'r so sweet as Mosellay."

* This beautiful simile of wine — so admirably rendered by Sir
W. Jones — is especially applicable to Burma, where the ruby is
the most favourite " precious jewel," and it is especially selected to
place inside the images of worship.

MISCELLANEOUS EECORD. 203

As King Mengdon, his late father, was a great reader, it
is not unlikely that Theebau has a literary turn, and, to
show us that His Majesty is not so bad as he seems, or is
reported to be, he may yet write his version of the entire
song above quoted, of which four lines may be anticipated : —

" Whate'er the mighty English say —
Tell them their Indies cannot show
A city not ten times as bad
As Gautama's own Mandalay."*

Head Waters of the Irawadi. — Early in April, a
record of some importance was received at the India
Office, entitled " Report on the Irawadi River," by
R. Gordon, Esq , M.I.O.E., M.I.M.E., Executive Engineer,
Renzada Division. The Report is published in a folio
volume, with upwards of thirty maps and sections, and is a
lasting monument of Mr. Gordon^s industry and talents in the
certainly not dry subjects of Hydrography and Hydrology.
The author of the present little work has already, in his third
chapter drawn attention to the supposed sources of the Ira-
wadi, and has also endeavoured to give a full account of the
etymology of the name of this noble river. Mr Gordon's
thirty-third paragraph in Part I. of his work has some
interesting remarks on *' the determination of the Thibetan
sources of the Irawadi." To give some idea of the
extent of his researches on the entire subject, it may be
mentioned that the book consists of four parts ; the first

* So called from the hill Mandale, below which it is built. The city
is about three miles from the Irawadi, and is especially watched over
by Gautama. " The city, with its walls and moat, is considered by
the Burmese impregnable." — See Our Burmese Wars, c&c, p. 403.

204 ashIj pyee.

containing 126 goodly paragraphs, the second 95, the
third 328, and the fourth 256, with various appendices.
Such a huge volume on one river is apt to remind one of
Lord Macaulay's famous review of Di". Nares' Lord Bur-
leigh and His Times ^ which, in bulk, was considered
hardly suitable to modern times, but which might have
been called '* light reading " when the span of human life
was far more extensive than at present, or before the
Deluge. Authors of books and reports should now more
than ever study the allotted age of man, in case a " big
book "maybe thought a "big nuisance."* The thirty-third
paragraph, before-mentioned, is a sort of.key to the whole
question; and its commencement runs thus : — " It is a more
difficult matter to distinguish which portion of the area of
the great Thibetan highlands to the north is drained by
this particular river. One degree further north than the
Irawadi has now been traced, no less than five great rivers
are found running parallel to each other from north to
south, the distance between the two furthest apart — the
Bramapootra and the Yang-tse-Kiang — being less than
200 miles. Between these lie the Irawadi, the Salween, and
the Mekong; and any adjustment of territory to one or more
of these must be so arranged as to provide a suitable area
for all."

The following remarks on this interesting subject have
been communicated to the present writer : —

" Mr. Gordon's voluminous report on the Irawadi river

• Or "big evil." So thought the author of the Opium-eater, De
Quincey ; or, if memory serves aright, he styled big books the
impedimenta of the Intellect on its endless march.

MISCELLANEOUS RECOED. 205

discusses vigorously the vexed question of its origin.
Among his authorities he refers to the map of the moun-
tains of India hy that well-known, pains-taking geographer,
Mr. Trelawney Saunders, prepared^ in 1870. That work
treated particularly on the ranges of the Himalaya and
Tibet, and it merely exhibited the views then generally
accepted by geographers with regard to the Irawadi. But
in a later map of the Himalaya and Tibet on a larger
scale, Mr. Saunders appears to have studied expressly the
connection of the great streams of south-eastern Asia
with the Tibetan rivers as delineated by the Lama surveyors,
and he has in that map derived both the Salween and the
Cambodia rivers from Tibet. The sources of the Irawadi
are still retained in that later map, among the unknown
regions, reputed to be covered with perpetual snow, on the
east of Assam. In cutting a passage for the Irawadi, so
as to connect it with the Sanpu without intruding on the
course of the Nu or Salween, Mr. Gordon does not hesitate
to destroy Wilcox's delineation of the rivers which
descend to the Bramakund from the east, and are said to
water the Chinese and Lama stations bearing the names of
Chusi and Kooema. It may be well to note that the
missionary Desgodins adopts Wilcox's hydrography in the
maps which he has published. But Mr. Gordon places
Chusi on the Nu or Salween, and Rooema on the water-
parting chain which he has imagined between the Sanpu-
Irawadi and the Nu-Salween in that part. It would be
interesting to know whether Mr. Gordon has any authority
for thus dealing with those places, which, being the
reported seats of the Lama and Chinese authorities respec-

206 ashI; pyee.

lively, must be regarded as of considerable importance in
any attempts to penetrate this sealed territory. A native
explorer, trained and despatched by Major Sandeman, of
the Indian Survey Department, has recently made an
instructive journey on the Irawadi, between Bamo and the
route followed by Wilcox in 1825. He traced an eastern
branch for some distance, and heard of another branch,
also from the east, which falls into the former near 26° 30'
north latitude. It is said to rise in a large lake. Snowy
mountains were also reported. There can be no doubt that
whichever wnv opinion may incline with regard to the ques-
tion of the connection of the great river Sanpu, whether with
the Irawadi or with the Bramapootra, it is impossible at
present to speak with much confidence on either side. It
is no doubt difficult to account for the vast volume of
water which finds its exit by the Irawadi, if its sources are
of confined to the southward of the twenty-eighth parallel
north latitude. Hence the inducement to connect the Irawadi
with the Sanpu, which, even according to Mr. Gordon, is
the only one of the Tibetan rivers that can be supposed
to fall into it. But has it been sufficiently considered
that, although the Irawadi basin — confined to the south of
28° north latitude on the north, and by the course of the
Salween on the east — is extremely small for the production
of such a body of water, yet that it is a region of perpetual
snow, probably falling in excessive abundance, so as to
supply a great stream even in the winter months, and one
vastly greater, when the intense heat of a tropical sun is
employed in vain to deprive all the snow of its quality of
perpetuity. It is impossible to turn aside from reflection

MISCELLANEOUS EECOBD. 207

upon this hitherto inscrutable problem without expressing
a hope that its solution will engage the perseverance and
energies of the Indian Government, and that the cordial
aid of the Government of Pekin will also be enlisted. No
doubt the distinguished minister who now represents
China at the Court of St. James would be willing to help
towards a proper knowledge of this frontier question. It
may be suspected that the Mishmees, who turned back the
late T. J. Cooper, were instigated by the Lama or Chinese
officials at the frontier stations of Eooema or Chusi."

Earl of Beaconsfield. — Allusion has already been
made to the late distinguished " author, statesman.
Premier," while writing on the Burma forests ; but it
would not do to omit from this record that the noble Earl
died in London, on Tuesday, 19th April, regretted by men
of every shade of politics. During his Premiership most
important events regarding the present King of Burma
(Theebau) took place ; and there can be no doubt that,
had any " aggression " on the part of the Burmese
occurred — notwithstanding time-absorbing Afghanistan —
affairs in Ashe Pyee would have occupied the Premier's
careful attention. His foreign policy — about which there
will long be much difference of opinion — had something
about it which won the hearts of the Services ; and there
are few intelligent men who, in some way or other, did not
admire Lord Beaconsfield.

Bhamo to Ichang. — At the beginning of May, most
welcome intelligence reached London, that at last English-
men had succeeded in entering China, from Burma,
without molestation. They had penetrated into the

208 ash6 ptee.

interior of the Empire ; and the credit belonged " to two
members of the enterprising body known as the China
Inland Mission, Messrs. Soltan and Stevenson/^ They
left Bhamo — eastward of Upper Burma — in November
1880, and their safe arrival at Ichang, on the Great River,
was announced by telegraph from India. After alluding
to the lamentable fate of the brave and energetic Augustus
Margary,* and to those pioneers of commerce, Thomas
Manning of seventy years ago, and the late Mr. Cooper,
the chronicler of this last important event is of opinion
that the two missionaries have at length succeeded in over-
coming the " formidable barrier of Mandarin suspicion
and dislike." This is, perhaps, rather a sanguine view of
the subject, and seems to leave the possibility of Burmese
obstructiveness and foul play entirely out of the question.
However, it is hoping for the best, in which hope all
interested in British commerce with south-west China
most sincerely join. In future, no expedition to Yunnan
by British officers must be undertaken, without holding
the King of Burma, to the best of his power, responsible
for the safety of the mission. It should leave Mandalay
and Bhamo as if it belonged to the Golden Foot, and he
were certain of its safe return.t With such precautions
there would be no more treacherous murders, like that of

* See Chapter IV., p. 99.

t When alluding to Captain Sprye's route, it has already been said
that the King of Burma declared he could not be responsible for
what might occur out of his own country. But the two cases are
different. The King's power and knowledge were very limited
through the Captain's route ; whereas nearly all facts about Yunnan,
its commerce and doings, are known at Mandalay.

MISCELLANEOUS KECORD. 209

poor Margary, who, although killed in Chinese territory,
one cannot help thinking that the deed was prompted by
some one at Mandalay. But to the enterprising gentlemen
above-mentioned, let us admit the fact that the honour has
been reserved for them " of breaking the shell which has
so long kept the frontier of Yunnan closed in our face.
The hope may be indulged that, with the establishment of
so satisfactory a precedent, it will now not be long before
a brisk and ever-increasing trade arises between the fertile
regions watered by the Irawadi and the Yang-tse-Kiang."
It is now high time for the British Chambers of Com-
merce to work, or, if not, ere long we shall certainly
have some other Power stepping in !

By the way, since writing this note, we are reminded
that we must not only look to our laurels in exploration,
but also to the quality of our cotton goods for sale in
China. Our consuls in Chinese ports have remarked upon
^* the disfavour into which English cotton goods have
fallen among the native population, owing entirely to the
excessive sizing, which adds to their weight and detracts
from their durability."

Education in India. — There can be little doubt that
the educational prospects of British Burma are far brighter
than those of India, and that eventually the land of
Buddha and Gautama will be better educated than that
of the Koran and the Veda. On the 5th of May, a
meeting took place in the rooms of the East India
Association, presided over by Major-General Sir William
Hill, K.C.S I., when the Rev. James Johnston, delivered
an address to show that the lines laid down by Lord

14

210 ABHfe PYEE.

Halifax, in the Education despatch of 1864, had been
ignored or disregarded in the twenty-six years' operation
of the Act. According to this gentleman, the elementary
education of the humbler classes had been neglected, and
the higher culture had obtained the lion's share of the
funds set apart by the State. It was also remarked that
there were 3J millions (27 millions of the population
being of school age) more uneducated children in 1880
than there were in 1854. Mr. Johnston concluded by
urging that a case had been made out for an inquiry
by Government into the working and results of the
Education Code in India.

On April 6, a deputation from the General Council on
Education in India had waited upon Lord Hartington
(having been introduced by Viscount Halifax), regarding
the education of the people of India. His Lordship
delivered a most important address on the subject, assuring
the deputation that the matter would receive the most
attentive consideration of the Indian Government.

British and Upper Burma. — Before the middle of
May, information arrived from Ashe Pyee and Calcutta,
aflPording a striking contrast in its nature. Regarding
Bntish Burma, Mr. Stokes had obtained leave"*^ to make
provision for a paper currency, as with the growth of trade
in that province, the want was seriously felt by the
mercantile community. Mr. Stokes had also introduced a
Bill to consolidate and amend the law relating to the
excise revenue in British Burma. This Bill, if passed,

• To introduce a Bill to amend the Paper Currency Act of 1871.

MISCELLANEOUS EECORD. 211

would practically prohibit '* the use of intoxicating drugs,
except for medical purposes, in the province." These
drugs were considered far more injurious than opium, and,
originally unknown to the Burmese, were chiefly used by
immigrants from India, who, in the opinion of the Chief
Commissioner, Mr. Bernard, and his predecessor, Mr.
Aitcheson, deberved no special consideration in the matter.
It also came out that Ganja was smuggled into Burma
by the native troops from Madras and Bengal. Thus
commerce as well as health in the country were being
benefited by British rule.

The picture now changes to Upper Burma, or Manda-
lay : —

King Theebau, the Rangoon Times says, '* finds money
growing very scarce in his capital. He was in the same
predicament about eighteen months ago, and to replenish
bis failing exchequer had recourse to that refuge of all the
impecunious and weak, to wit — gambling. Lotteries were
started in the royal city, and, for a time, money flowed in
very freely. Curious stories were wont to be told, how-
ever, of the fate of some of the winners. One, a Burmese
lady from Kangoon, won a large sum one day, and went to
the royal treasury in the palace to draw it. While waiting,
a trustworthy servant of the King suddenly found out
that the lady was a spy in the pay of the British.
History is silent concerning her fate, but her sorrowing
friends still mourn her absence. Another, a fairly-well-
to do Burman, resident in Mandalay, was sent for one
evening, and left his house there and then for the last
time. He has never been seen since by any of his

14 •

212 ash6 pyee.

friends, who, however, found out that he had drawn a
heavy prize in one of the lotteries. The theory of the
friends is that Theebau is taking care of him lest he should
attempt to go into British territory to spend his money.
But to leave these stories alone, the fact remains, that for
a long time after the establishment of the lotteries, goodly
sums, by fair or by unfair means, poured into the royal
coffers, and for a time all went merry as a marriage bell.
But, as everyone else but the King of Ava and his
ministers knows full well, the primeval curse rests on
mankind ; the ground is cursed for their sakes, and
wealth is only to be acquired by the sweat of their brows.
Money went into the King's coffers which ought to have
gone into the land, and now produce, and consequently
money, is scarce. Lotteries have failed, therefore, and now
monopolies are to be tried. Some time ago the monopoly
of jaqyeri, or raw sugar, was sold to an enterprising
Chinaman. This product is largely used in the province
in the manufacture of liquor ; and by placing the mono-
poly of its sale into the hands of one man a fillip was
given to illicit distillation, a great deal of which goes
on in the delta of the Irawadi. The owners of illicit
stills are mostly Chinese, and as the jaggeri farmer is a
Chinaman, each can play into the hands of the other.
The monopoly of the sale of salt in His Majestg^s
dominions has just been sold by the King to Hashin
Ariff, a wealthy trader in Rangoon, for a lac of rupees
a year. The absolute cruelty of this step needs no
insisting on. A salt monopoly, even when worked by
the Government, is not a thing deserving of specirtl

MISCELLANEOUS EECORD. 213

admiration ; when such is, farmed out to an alien it
becomes an instrument of intolerable oppression and
cruelty. Of the injury done to trade hy these monopolies
it is impossible to speak too strongly. And the worst of
it is that neither the country, the people, nor the Govern-
ment benefit in the least from these proceedings. The
King gets a lac of rupees a year, certain of his ministers
get presents of greater or less value, and double, if not
quadruple, the entire sum is eventually extracted from
the pockets of the people, ere the farmer, and his agents
and assistants, consider themselves fairly paid."

After reading such a description, and making every
allowance for gossip, we cannot help thinking how diflBcult
it would be to give King Theebau clear views on Free
Trade. Self-protection, as with strong Protectionists in
Europe, is evidently the Burman monarch's grand theory
and still grander practice ; and it may be doubted if even
Mr. Bright, with all his persuading logic and eloquence,
could have any effect upon the Golden Foot. To English
readers, it must appear that the King's doings are a few
shades more unnatural than placing a duty on grain and
cattle ; for such as King Theebau seem to think that it is
not enough to take the duty, but it may be in accordance
with national custom to take the corn and the cattle also.
The King is a young man, and may live to see — with his
crown or without it — that no nation can prosper where the
pohcy of Free Trade does not prevail ; and, perhaps, when
all Ashe Pyee is flourishing, Theebau will be found
studying a translation into Burmese of the life of the
great Kichard Cobden, which will surely remove any

214 ashI: pyee.

remaining sympathy " with the exploded doctrine of Pro-
tection, alias Fair Trade, alias Reciprocity ! " *

Chinese and Indian Opium. — It was interesting to
read, at a time when opium was receiving so much atten-
tion, that the native drug was rapidly superseding the
Indian in many of the southern provinces of the Celestial
Empire ; and although an Imperial decree, issued some
three years ago, absolutely prohibited the cultivation of the
poppy, the local mandarins were either afraid to enforce it
or '* had an interest in allowing it to remain a dead letter."
Missionaries from the interior reported '* a large increase
of the area under poppy cultivation." Of course, it is
well known in some quarters, that Upper Burma receives
opium from south-west China.

Saghalien.' — Slight allusion has been made to this
remarkable island elsewhere. On the 1 8th of May, some
interesting information regarding *' the colonisation of
Saghalien," appeared in a popular London journal, as a
** Note of the Day,'' which is well worthy of notice, and
shows that Great Britain must look ahead in Eastern
Asia It must be kept in mind that the present writer
in his occasional allusions to the progress of Russia, is very
far from a Russophobist. As a retired member of one of
the Services, he is not in the least afraid of Russia or any
other great Power; but it must candidly be confessed that
with air our inherent greatness, energy, and good intentions.

* These concluding remarks were written while this little work was
going through the press, after reading Mr. Bright's birthday (70)
speech, at Birmingham, of 16th November.

MISCELLANEOUS EEGOED. 215

we are sometimes lamentably outdoae in scientific and com-
mercial enterprise : —

'* The Russian authorities are going to make a strenuous
effort this year to establish settlements in the islands which,
they annexed a few years ago from the Japanese. During
the course of the ensuing summer some 4,000 convicts
will be despatched thither from Odessa, and dispersed in
colonies about the island. These colonies are being orga-
nised in a most careful manner, reminding one of the soli-
citude displayed by Robinson Crusoe in choosing proper
settlers for the ever-memorable island he reigned over in
solitude so long. Thus, in the steamer Nijni Novgorod,
which is now on its way to the Pacific with 600 souls on
board, there are among the prisoners forty carpenters, ten
shoemakers, sixteen tailors, ten stove-setters, four smiths,
two painters, and a number of other craftsmen, selected
with care from the leading convict establishments in the

empire It is hoped by the Russian Government

that as soon as Saghalien is dotted with settlements a large
development will take place of the mineral riches of the
island, and that the colony will gradually become a second
Java or Ceylon. Associated as this scheme is with plans
for developing Russia's political power in the Pacific, it
merits the attention of the public. By the discovery of
vast beds of coal in the immediate neighbourhood of Vla-
divostock, Saghalien has lost its orignal raison d'etre as
the coaling station of the Pacific Fleet ; but the fact that,
in spite of the supercession of its mines, the Russian
Government persists in colonising and developing the
island, is not without significance/'

216 ASHi PYEE.

Mandalay and Rangoon. — Towards the end of May^
some intelligence, styled " authentic/' was received from
Mandalay, " to the effect that the murders of the princes
ceased only within the last month, or thereabouts." A well
known old Mingyee and his daughter, *' one of the inferior
queens of the late king," were said to have been murdered.
At least, after being thrown into prison, they were never
more seen or heard of. There were various other arrests,
with some difficulty in saving life, which still appeared
rather cheap at Mandalay. The following, to English
readers, must seem hardly credible ; but, after what has
been reported in Our Burmese Wars, dc, perhaps it is
correct : — ** All the young princes, from nine years old and
upwards, the sons, grandsons, and nephews, of the late
king, who were spared in the general massacre of the
princes, their wives and children, have now been put to
death secretly, one by one, at various times, within the
past few months ; with the exception of the late War
Prince's sons, who became Phongyees about two years ago,
and so far saved their lives. The mother and sister of the
Nyoungyan prince have lately been released from custody,
but are under surveillance." But news from the Shan
States now came to trouble the King's heart. The Shans
■were said to be gaining ground, and had inflicted various
defeats on the Burmese troops. The King could spare no
reinforcements; but he had sent two "Hpoongyees" to
preach loyalty and submission to the Shans, who turned
a deaf ear to their exhortations, and declared their deter-
mination to be independent of the King, and their resolu-
tion to form a confederacy to resist all attacks.

MISCELLANEOUS EECORD. 21T

From Rangoon, the news was of a decidedly more civi-
lised character — civilised, at least, as this world goes*
Fortunately, as if not over-zealous in imitating the West,
a " regular " murder was wanting to complete the picture.
The report contained *' another outbreak in the Rangoon
jail '* ; ** Homicide by soldiers " ; a " Wife divorcing her
husband " ; and other by no means innocent amusements.
In an age when, from its frequency, divorce would almost
appear to have become fashionable, the divorce case accord-
ing to the Rangoon Times may now be given. The Euro-
pean wife of a European preventive officer at Rangoon
had written to her husband returning him her wedding
ring, and stating that she had embraced the Buddhist reli-
gion, and that, availing herself of the rights of her new
faith, she divorced him." U'his example, it was feared,,
would have many imitators when it became " generally known
h cweasily a wife may divorce her husband."* After all,
marriage, in too many cases, on either side, all over the
world, is simply a repetition of Benjamin Franklin's wise
story, oi i)aying too much for a whistle !

Trade with Burma. — This all-important subject has
already received due attention. In what old Spenser styles
*' Jolly June" — when none of the British possessions in
the East promised a more rapid or more enormous deve-
lopment of trade than British Burma, " the volume of it&

* Such a law would appear to be' in imitation of the Burmese code
of divorce, provided for ill-assorted unions, and which, according to
General Fytche, " has been pronounced by Father Bigandet, the
Boman Catholic Bishop of Eangoon, as a damnable laxity." — See
Burma, Past and Present, vol. ii. p. 73.

218 ASH^ PTEE.

inland traffic alone having reached about four millions " —
it was announced that one important channel of trade was
threatened, in consequence of an insurrection against the
Chinese having broken out among the Panthays (Maho-
medans of Yunnan). Seven or eight years ago, it is well
known, after the latter's first great rebellion, the Chinese
reconquered the province. It was thought that the rebels
had at length received a decided blow. For centuries a
considerable trade had been carried on between Yunnan
and Burma, Bhamo, and Momien, being the trade empo-
riums. During the Panthay rebellion, this trade ceased
altogether. *'* Since the Chinese have regained possession
of the country, trade, particularly in cotton, was con-
tinually iu progress," but seemed now to have been stopped
by the new revolt. Not long ago, news reached Bombay
that '' all the cotton boats had returned to Bhamo in con-
sequence of the rising." The following information may
be considered supplementary to what has already been said
with reference to Yunnan : —

" The resources of Yunnan are described as immense, and all who
know anything of the country agree that an almost unlimited and
very profitable trade might be carried on with that part of China if
only one Government, either Chinese or Panthay, could he firmly esta-
blished. The distance from Bhamo to Momien is only ninety miles,
and no difdculties would be experienced in constructing a road, or
even a railway between the two towns, which would bring Western
China in direct steam communication with the rest of the world.
Already the volume of inland trade in Barma by the Salween, or
Loo Kiaug river, is very considerable, and is only overshadowed by
the Sittang, and, of course, that other great trade route, the Irawadi,
both of which, however, are wholly river-routes, whereas the Salweea,
and five other routes are all partly land-routes, which is necessarily
a great drawback. Last year there ware imports to the amount o
£29,803 received by the Salween route, and exports sent by the same

MISCELLANEOUS EECOBD. 219

route to the amount of £82,316, making the whole volume of the
trade by that route of the annual value of an eighth of a million
sterling."

British Burma Dinners. — The history of brotherhood
in the army is much embellished by the grand and steady
fact of the regimental dinner. To dine together, once a
year, and talk over old friendships, " friends departed," or
" moving accident by flood and field," is a very enjoyable
recreation ; and long may the rational and pleasant custom
exist among us ! On the llth of June, however, it was
not a regimental dinner that took place at Willis's Rooms.
Although several of the company had shared in the con-
quest of Pegu, still the gathering was more one of the well-
wishers of, and distinguished men who had served in,
British Burma. General Sir A. P. Phayre, G.O.M.G.,
occupied the chair; and such well-known names as Major-
General B. Ford, Major-General H. T. Duncan, G.S.L,
Messieurs E Garnet Man and J. M. Leishman, figured as
members of the committee on this august occasion. A great
English wit said that if London were to be laid in ruins
to-morrow, the loyal citizens would celebrate the event by
a dinner. The love of dining together is so strong in
the British nature, that probably nothing will ever check
the honoured custom ; and, while British Burma is be-
coming so prosperous, nothing could be more gratifying
to those present at the feast than to be gathered round a
<jhief who had done so much for the country

Husked Rice in Burma. — Towards the end of June,
an interesting note was published on the Burmese and
husked rice, which is woi-thy of insertion in this record.

220 ASHt PTEE.

as showing a delicacy in the matter of their food for which
we have not heen accustomed to give them credit : —

" It is strange what a prejudice the Burmese inhabitants of Ran-
goon have to rice husked in the steam rice-mills. All they consume
is husked by hand, and such rice, they say, contains more nutriment
than the steam mill-husked rice. A native firm has recently imported
steam machinery from Italy in the hopes of conquering these local
prejudices against machine-husked paddy, but the Burmese say that
they still prefer to have their paddy pounded by hand v^^hen they
require rice for their own consumption. On the other hand, they
are quite alive to the importance of steam machinery in the rice
trade, and Burmese, both here and there in Moulmein, have of recent
years gone in for steam rice-mills, though they will not consume the
produce of their mills themselves. There seems to be an abundant
supply of paddy and rice this year, and since Sir Richard Temple's
Behar famine we have not had grain so cheap as in the present year
at the commencement of the rains." *

Indian Opium Trade. — At the end of April, it will be
remembered, this important topic was discussed in the
House of Commons. There can be no doubt that it is a
great subject, from a moral, a financial, and a commercial
point of view. It was of interest, therefore, to read the
opinions of a leading Calcutta journal thereon, after the
various remarks of the London press. As to the first
aspect of the question. Lord Hartington showed that it
•was the abuse of opium which alone was mischievous.
" It required a man to be moderately rich to be able to
smoke immoderately " ; and, " owing to its high price,.
Indian opium could not be used by the labouring classes."
The Secretary of State for India, in the opinion of the
Calcutta journalist, " made a very complete reply to Mr.
Pease on the question of morality ; and he expressed his

* Homeward Mail, 22nd June, 1881.

MISCELLANEOUS EECOED. 221

conviction that the use of the drug in China is, on the
whole, a benefit to the people, and that evidence made it
very doubtful whether the use of opium was necessarily
injurious at all, or at all events more injurious than that
of other stimulants." Beyond this the force of argument
can no further go. The morality of the question lies in a
nutshell. It is simply one of moderation and self-denial —
which view has already been insisted on in these pages, and
the present writer is firmly of opinion that " reforms of this
sort must originate with the people." Now, passing on to
the next phase, the journalist does not think that the
substitution of " private enterprise " for a Government
monopoly will necessarily tend to a decrease of revenue,
** for the revenue," he says, *' derived from excise and
export dues, instead of, as now, from direct Government
sales, will depend upon the quantity of the drug manu-
factured and exported ; and it is reasonable to suppose
that the quantity will increase." But here one point
seems to have escaped the writer's mind. Until the
" private enterprise " machinery got into perfect working,
not brilliant with spasmodic operation, like the volatile
electric light, there would be a great deficiency in the
finances of India, at a time when money is most required
in our splendid dominion. As to the commercial view of
the question, he thinks that ''private enterprise" will not
satisfy Mr. Pease and his followers, *' as the industry will
still live, and probably flourish more vigorously." Again,
he says, *'It would be just as reasonable to prohibit or
limit the manufacture of alcohol as of opium." Looking
calmly at the whole subject, it is not easy to get rid of

222 ASHfe PTEE.

the opinion that, if not a positive eventual loss, a vast
inconvenience will arise from the cessation of the Indian
opium trade with China. Of course, the " private enter-
prise " trade could extend to China ; but the Flowery
Land seems more than ever bent on growing its own
opium.* If they cannot get Indian opium, they may
** import it from Persia, Turkey, and Africa." And all
these probabilities add to the difficulty of the question.

The King of Stam. — Early in July, information was
received that the King of Siam had sent an envoy to the
Court of Mandalay. He was commissioned to conclude a
treaty with the Burmese Government, by which Siam
would retain the territory occupied by the Siamese troops,
and for which she was willing to pay to Burma a compen-
sation to the value often lakhs (£100,000). It was gene-
rally thought that King Theebau was so pressed for money
that he would not be able to resist the chance of obtaining
a good round sum. Siam is a remarkable country but
little known. The monarch of many names is absolute,
and considered so sacred a character, that even his name
is not allowed to be uttered. It is not forty years since
the Government directed its attention to the establishment
of a regular army. Siam's one great river, the Meinan, or
Menam, rises in the Yunnan province of China, and flows
southward through Siam into the gulf of Siam, watering
the whole country in its course. The capital of Siam —

* The above journalist is of opinion that, to aid the restriction on
the importation of Indian opium, the Chinese Government might
** revert to their old policy of prohibition or protective duties." This,
even with China, in an age of Free Trade, would never do.

MISCELLANEOUS KECOED. 223^

Bangkok — in name, at least, is pretty well known to Euro-
peans. It is on the banks of the Menam. The population
of the country used to be 3,000,000, of whom 150,000
were Chinese. After Alompra's brilliant reign at Ava, the
Siamese received their independence. They succeeded in
maintaining it ; but were continually at war with the Bur-
mese. Now, all feuds appeared to be forgotten. The
King of Siam sending an envoy to the King of Burma,
was a significant event ; and, as before hinted, the two
young kings may yet assist British enterprise in opening
up the trade of south-west China.

The Furmese Frontier. — For upwards of two years
the frontier between Muniptir and Burma had been in a
disturbed condition. At the time of the restoration of the
Kubo valley to Burma (1834), the frontier line was but
roughly demarcated; and the uncertainty of the boundary
had led of late to " constant border forays and raids."
With a view to prevent these disturbances, it was generally
published, at the end of July, that an expedition would be
sent in the cold weather, or rather an ofiBcer to demarcate
the frontier ; and the Burmese Government were to be
invited to send an officer to co-operate with him. The
boundary line has been a chief disturber of the peace
among Eastern states for centuries past ; and too much
attention cannot be paid to such matters. Lord Dalhousie
was most particular on this point. On the present occa-
sion, we read of a boundary made when the country was
uninhabited, which does not correspond to any of its
natural features. Peace cannot possibly be expected under
such circumstances.

224 ASHfe PTEB.

The Russo-Chinese Treaty. — Towards the end of
August, it was generally announced that an exchange of
ratifications of the Russo-Chinese treaty had taken place at
the Foreign Office, St. Petersburg, between the Marquis
Tseng, the Chinese Envoy, and M. De Giers. Here was
another clever stroke of Russian policy, of getting in the
wedge, by giving back territory to China. Before the
ratification, it was announced by an able St. Petersburg
correspondent : —

" It may be remembered that tbe refusal of China to ratify the
work of her Plenipotentiary was due chiefly to the fact that Chung
How had been induced to give up to Russia the better part of the
Kuldja territory, including the Valley of the Tekkes, and certain
passes in the Tian Shan. In the new treaty the Court of Pekin has
carried its point, and regained this valuable slip of land, though at
what sacrifice we are yet unaware. The towns of Old and New
Kuldja, or Hi, with all that lies to the east of them, come once more
under the sceptre of the Boodokhan, the line being drawn, according
to the above authority, from the town of Bedjin to the south and
south-west to the Tian Shan, rounding off the Russian province of
Semiretchinsk by the absorption of a comparative insignificant por-
tion of Chinese territory."

Flowering of the Bamboo. — In India it is said that
the flowering of the bamboo and an abundant mango
season were looked upon by the natives as signs portend-
ing great sickness and famine. It appears that the same
belief holds good among the Burmese. '* Both these
beliefs prevail in Burma," says a Rangoon journal; and
what is more to the point, Burma may be added to the list
of provinces where this year (1881) the bamboo has
flowered, and the mango crop has been exceptionally
abundant. The belief among the Burmese at present
(August) is that great famine and pestilence are threatened.

MISCELLANEOUS EECOED. 225

Previously, it has been considered a fact that the bamboo
(each clump) flowers but once in thirty years. Few see
the bamboo flower twice ; and when it has flowered, it dies.
How is this ? Famines are not certainly confined to
periods of thirty years. For information on this subject,
on referring to a scientific friend, he could only re-
mark : — " The seeding of the bamboo varies according to
species — some every year — some only after from sixty
to seventy years ; and then death — like man, indeed, at
maturity."

Silk. — Among the Government presents which, accord-
ing to custom, were ordered to be sold in Calcutta in the
first half of the year, were China and Burmese silks. In
the month of August some most interesting information
was published in London on the silk trade of China, the
Chinese Government having just issued a voluminous
report thereon. Silk-manufacture is of very old date in
China, whence, of course, it came to Burma, or to the
whole of Chin-India. It is even said to have been in a
flourishing state, in the Flowery Land, four thousand years
prior to the introduction of cotton from India at the
beginning of the Yuan dynasty, in a.d. 1260. But at that
date it began to decline. " Cotton was a cheaper material
for clothing than silk, and, as a consequence, the latter,
though never quite abandoned, became less and less used.^'
But when the ships of the " outer barbarians " arrived in
the Chinese ports, the demand for silk stimulated the manu-
facture for export, and the silk trade again rose with the
prosperity of the people. It has fluctuated on several
occasions, but Chinaand silk are as inseparable as China and

15

226 ashI: pyee.

tea. These, in spite of rebellions, will ever flourish somewhere
in China. We read that the Taepeng rebellion ruined the
silk and many other industries. '* In Chinkiang sericulture
revived in the year 1851, the local authorities distributing,
free of cost, young mulberry-shoots, and teaching the
people how to grow them and breed silkworms." Chin-
kiang had manufactured large quantities of silk piece-goods,
gauze, ribbons, and the silk damasks known as "Jing
pongee" and " kung pongee."* It is a sort of Coventry
of the Celestial Empire. As with Burmese, elasticity is
wanting in most Chinese silks, and *' ignorance of how to
weave a net with every thread of the same calibre." That
in time they will be able to do so, and compete with the
silks of India in the European markets, " need not be
doubted. Already the Lyons Chamber of Commerce are
getting alarmed over the prospect." It became apparent
that the Chinese, as well as the nations of Chin-India,
require to learn the methods of silk manufacture employed
in the European factories, and obtain machinery, after
which course of silk it has been truly remarked, " silk
gowns will become common enough." (See also Addenda
to Chapter IV.). Some years ago, the revival of a silk
trade at Mandalay was attempted under French auspices.
Like other commercial attempts in the same quarter, it was
simply a flash in the pan, and it cannot be said that there
has been any improvement in the manufacture of silk in
Burma since that period. Probably Upper Burma is
waiting for China to set the example, when Ash6 Pyee

* See also Standard, August 11, 1881, on " Chinese Silk."

MISCELLANEOUS RECORD. 227

may yet give to the world soft and elastic silk of excellent
quality.

Indian Budget. — The Cotton Duties. — On Monday,
August 22nd, Lord Hartington explained the Indian
Budget to the House of Commons. The following is a
summary, from a leading journal, of his lordship's annual
statement on the finances of India: — "In 1880-81 the
revenue was ^62,300, 000 more than in the previous year,
and the expenditure ^7,535,000 in excess, owing to the
Afghan war. For the current year he estimated a surplus
of i'855,000 over expenditure. The cost of the war, in-
cluding the frontier railways, up to the end of 1880-81,
exceeded £20,000,000, or double the amount of Sir J.
Strachey's estimate in February 1880. The total charges
of the war exceeded £23,000,000. But for the war,
during the last four years there would have been surpluses
of revenue exceeding £9,500,000. He regretted that the
condition of the revenue necessitated the continuance of
duties upon the coarser kind of English goods. Though
unable to make any remissions of taxations he regarded
the state of Indian finance as prosperous and satisfactory."
With reference to the cotton duties, the Marquis of Hart-
ington said, after stating that he thought '* it was wise to
postpone any reduction, or even readjustment, of Indian
taxation " : —

"As to the remnant of the cotton duties, the total loss incurred by the
reduction of those duties was, in 1879-80, seventeen lakhs of rupees, or
about £170,000 ; in 1880-81 the total loss was twelve lakhs, or about
£130,000. A heavy loss has been incurred on the class of grey goods
which were dealt in a few years ago. Considerable inconvenience is
caused to trade by the inspection and examination necessary under

15 *

228 Asnfj PTEE.

the present system, but the interference with trade is greater still ;
for what has happened? While protection has been withdrawn from
native industry, a sort of protection has been directed to one class of
English goods against another ; and while coarser goods are now pro-
tected or stimulated by free admission, tJie finer goods are still taxed. It
seems absolutely impossible to continue that condition of things, and
I regret that it should have been thought necessary to continue it for
another year. '

*'The whole course of trade," added the Secretary of
State, " has been changed by our fiscal legislation, and by
the peculiarities of our tariff." Perhaps there are few
problems so difficult to solve in the minds of Oriental
sovereigns as our Indian budgets. Nothing would make
them good financiers (particularly King Theebau) so soon,
if they would only be thorough in their study.

Burma Forests Bill. — To the friends of British
Burma, a meeting of the Governor-General's Council at
Simla, 31st August 1881, was of some importance, as the
Forests Bill — already alluded to — was under consideration.
Even to one who has not made the subject a study, the
remarks of the Honourable Mr. Rivers Thompson, on pre-
senting the Report of the Select Committee on the Bill
to amend the law relating to forests, forest-produce, and
the duty leviable on timber in British Burma, vrill be of
interest, as tending to show with what care such matters
are treated by our Indian Government. Mr. Thompson,
on moving that the Bill as amended be passed, remarked
that, after its introduction, the Bill had been referred to
the Local Government, '* the whole of the details of the
Bill had been very carefully considered, and an excellent
report submitted. Generally, the Bill, as stated before,
proceeded on the lines of the Indian Forest Act of 1878,

MISCELLANEOUS EECORD. 229

but there were certain particulars in which modifications
were necessary to make that law applicable to the particu-
lar circumstances of British Burma."

In short, an exceptional Forests Bill was required for
Burma as much as an exceptional Land Bill for Ireland.
On some points the Select Committee had differed from
the Local Government, as with theory versus practice must
ever be expected. In these days of Land Bills and Land
Agitation, a good remark by the Chief Commissioner of
British Burma is worthy of being quoted. Keferring to a
particular section, he said: "On the general principles
that it is a great pity ever to make a law that is not
shown to be needed, and that it is inexpedient to create
by legislation vague undefined rights or claims, the scope
of which cannot be foreseen, the Chief Commissioner and
his oJB&cers strongly advise that this section be omitted."

Mr. Rivers Thompson, in his able review, drew atten-
tion to Chapter III. of the Bill, "which was a new one,
and related to the constitution of village forests. There
were at present no village forests in Burma, but it was
thought desirable that Government should take the power
of assigning certain areas of its own in the neighbourhood
of villages for the use of their inhabitants, under the
condition that teak or other specially reserved trees should
remain the property of Government. The establishment
of such forests would be a great boon to the people ; and
it had been found by experience that it was quite possible
in Burma to combine the protection and good management
of a teak-producing forest, with a free use of bamboos or
other woods required by the people for all domestic

230 ABHk PYEE.

purposes.'' The chapter thus alluded to would give the Chief
Commissioner the power of constituting such village
forests, and regulating their use. Referring to Chapter
IV. of the Bill, "the Chief Commissioner proposed to
maintain the ancient and universally-recognised right of
the State to all teak trees, wherever situate, for a period
of five years ; that is, for such time as would enable the
Government to utilise the valuable trees, after which he
considered the right might be conveniently abandoned."
The Government rights in the teak tree as a royal tree are
recognised in Burma, even when the tree stands on land
the property of a private person.

Viceroy's Visit to Burma. — By the overland mail
which arrived on the 19th September, information was
received that the Marquis of Ripon, after his northern
tour, was expected to visit Burma about Christmas or the
New Year. Such an announcement naturally led the
present writer back to two famous visits of Governors-
General in days gone by. The first was by Lord Dal-
housie — the great Proconsul, the ready writer, the states-
man, possessing amazing decision of character. On
Tuesday, the 27th of July, 1H52, the noble Marquis and
Staff arrived at Rangoon in the Company's steam-frigate
Feroze. It was little more than three months since we had
captured the great Pagoda ; and while the illustrious party
wandered round the Temple, wondering and admiring, it
was pleasant to hear his lordship remark : — " I am aston-
ished how your men got in here with such defences."* It

* See Our Burmese Wars, dtc, pp. 175-176.

MISCELLANEOUS KECOED. 231

seems strange that more should not be thought of the
illustrious man who gave England so many large and im-
portant and profitable additions to our Indian Empire.
About twenty years after the above visit, the popular and
chivalrous Lord Mayo arrived in Rangoon. In 1870, when
replying to an address from the European community in
Burma, presented by the Chief Commissioner, General
Albert Fytche, C.S.I., his lordship gave the first announce-
ment of his projected visit, which circumstances eventually
delayed, and it did not take place till 1872. On the 8th of
February in that year, as is well known, the energetic
Viceroy was murdered at the An damans. " Not climate,
not overwork this time," it was remarked. " That clear,
firm intellect was never more securely seated on its lofty
throne ; that herculean figure never firmer in the saddle,
more commanding at Durbar, more conspicuous in bril-
liant assemblies, more lordly and magnificent everywhere."*
Should Lord Ripon, it was thought, carry out his visit to
Burma, doubtless it would be of immense benefit to the
" superior country."

New Commissioner. — In September it was published in
India that, owing to the creation of a new Commissioner-
ship (of the Irawadi Division), various appointments had
been gazetted. Another division for British Burma will
surely tend to improve our prosperous possession. Ran-
goon, the capital, must be proud of the addition. With its
learned and highly-respected Bishops — Protestant and

* See the author's Sketches of some distinguished Anglo-Indians, (&c.,
p. 212. The alluaion to Lord Mayo is in a sketch of Anglo-Indiaa
Periodical Literature.

232 ASHt: PYEE.

Eoman Catholic — its Masonic lodges, its wooden resi-
dences of merchant kings, its Government huildings, its
Chamber of Commerce, Rangoon has every reason to he
thankful.

Population of India. — Some interesting statistics on
the population of India were published in London about
the end of September. Already much has been said on the
population of Burma. Mr. W. C. Plowden, the Census
Commissioner of India, had issued a memorandum with
regard to the population of that country, according to the
census of the 17th of February 1881. "The only pro-
vinces or States,^' it is remarked, "which show a very
perceptible decrease are Mysore, 17 per cent., and Madras,
2.4 per cent. These figures give mournful evidence of
the check to growth in numbers which famine and con-
sequent disease have imposed on the population of these
two countries." The province which has the largest
population is that of Bengal, which numbers 68,829,920.
The North- Western Provinces, excluding Eampore and
Native Garhwal, number 32,699,436. Madras has a
population of 30,839,181. The grand total of the seven-
teen provinces is 218,559,918. Compared with the census
taken in the several provinces between the years 1866
and 1875, this shows an increase of 12,788,565, or about
6 per cent.*

To the above may be added, from Supplement to Gazette
of l7idia (September 10), a few notes based on the " state-
ment showing the population by sex," of some of the

* See Standard, September 28, 1881.

MISCELLANEOUS EECOBD. 23B

provinces in India, according to census of 1881. These,
of course, include British Burma, with its great British
Indian port, Rangoon. It is well to give the ladies the
precedence. Out of twenty-three provinces, including
native States, we find only four with the females exceeding
the males. These are Bengal, with 34,601,015 females
against 34,220,905 males (excluding population details
for Sikkim and Naga Hills not censused) ; Madras,
with 15,597,059 against 15,242,122 ; Mysore, with
2,100,107 against 2,086,292 ; and Travancore, with
1,204,024 females against 1,197,134 males. The future
historian, as education progresses, will doubtless claim
these as the four grand provinces — following the
example of the West — for Female Suffrage ! Emigration
and famine, however, have been the causes of the decrease
in males.

British Burma has only 1,720,220 females against
1,987,426 males in a population, as stated elsewhere, of
3,707,646. The population of British Burma, according
to previous census, was only 2,747,148, or 1,311,630
females against 1,435,518 males. The population of
Upper Burma — the most famous portion of Ashe Pyee in
the eyes of the geuuine Burmese — may be set down at
4,000,000 or 5,000,000, from which might be deducted
Shan tribes, who have recently thrown off their allegiance
to the Golden Foot. It has ever been extremely difficult
to estimate the population of the Burman dominions.
When Colonel Symes visited them in 1795, they were said
to contain 17,000,000, including Arakan. Captain Cox,
who succeeded him as Ambassador, does not go beyond

^34 ashIb pyee.

8,000,000 * ; and Captain Canning, in 1810, considered
even this last number as greatly exaggerated. (For causes
of decrease in population, see Our Burmese Wars, dhc,
p. 328.)

ToNQurN. — In the Times of 8th October, it was
announced that the Chinese Ambassador at Paris had
represented to the French Government that the Chinese
Government could not allow the independence of the
Prince of Tonquin, as established by treaty in 1875, to be
trifled with. He is a vassal of China, and pays tribute, as
the King of Burma is supposed to do ; so China could not
allow the relations to be disturbed. There are many mil-
lions under his rule; so if France interferes, China and
Tonquin may yet come down with fierce wrath on *' the
Eastern policy of our Gallic neighbour." — (See Note II.)

Opium Supply for Upper Burma. — About the middle
of October, the following interesting note was published.
Allusion has already been made in this rejord to the en-
terprising missionaries ; and opium is a subject of vast
interest in England at the present time : — " Two mis-
sionaries, Mr. H. Soltau and Mr. J. W. Stevenson, who
have recently completed a journey of 2,900 miles in China,
-starting from Bhamo, in Upper Burma, and reaching
Shanghai and Hankow, report that about three-fourths of
the land under cultivation in some districts through which
they passed was devoted to the growth of opium, and that
all the fresh clearings on the hills were about to be utilised

* Of course, including Pegu, and the greater portion of British
Burma.

MISCELLANEOUS EECOKD. 235

in the same way. In Sze-chuen they were informed that
the quantities exported from that province alone to other
parts of the Chinese Empire exceeded the total amounts of
the imports of the article from India into China. They
add that Upper Burma is supplied with opium from the
neighbouring Chinese province of Yunnan.^'

Destruction of Wild Animals and Snakes. — In the
middle of October, some interesting reading appeared in
the Supplement to the Gazette of India on the destruction
of wild animals and venomous snakes in our great Depen-
dency, including, of course, British Burma.

The ingenious author of a book of travels in Iceland, it
is fairly well known, commenced and finished his chapter,
headed '* Snakes in Iceland," by declaring *' There are no
snakes in Iceland." Such cannot be said of Ashe Pyee.
There are both wild animals and venomous snakes in
Burma ; and, as regards the latter, although the snake is
a comfortable reptile, and, so long as he keeps out of your
boot or your bath-room, the European does not see much
of him unless he looks for him, still his efi'ectual destruc-
tion is, hardly less than that of wild animals, of great
importance. It is pleasing to observe that the British press
is beginning to take up this subject; while the Government
of India is doing its utmost to extirpate such fatal nuisances.
One can hardly believe that, in Bengal, during 1880, nearly
12,000 persons — the population of a good-sized town — were
killed by wild animals and snakes; and over 15,000 cattle
by the same terrible agents of the Destroying Angel.
The other Presidencies and Governments have also a large
array of death. In British Burma, during the same year.

236 ASH^ PYEE.

the number of persons killed amounted to 181, and the
number of cattle to 1,172. In Bombay (1880), the total
number of wild animals destroyed amounted to 1,717; and
snakes to the enormous number of 177,000. The total
amount of rewards given for this destruction reached to
nearly £1,200. In British Burma, the wild animals (in
the same year) amounted to nearly 700 destroyed ; while
the destruction of snakes gave a return of 1,000, the total
amount of rewards being under £400. The entire figures-
show that the total number of persons killed in the several
provinces has gradually increased from 19,273 in 1876 to
21,990 in 1880. The study of snake-poison evidently
requires another Sir Joseph Fayrer in India at present ;
while some engine of wholesale destruction, for wild
animals in our Eastern dominions, remains to be in-
vented. To think that, in Bengal alone, during last year,,
there were 10,000 deaths from snake-bite, and 360 by
tigers, and a total in eleven provinces of nearly 3,000 from
wild beasts, and 19,150 from venomous snakes, is enough
to make humanity shudder, showing that, with regard ta
populations in the East still —

" The trail of the serpent is over them all ! "

No wonder the writer of an interesting note, entitled '"Tis-
the land of the sun," concludes in this fashion : — " Surely
something must be done in our Eastern Empire to circum-
vent the wisdom of the serpent and take him in his own
craftiness ; and love of good sport and arms of precision
ought by degrees to thin down the man-stealers." To
men of only moderate courage, or even invalids, a day or

MISCELLANEOUS EECOBD. 237

two of such sport might do more good to the nerves than
weeks on the moors in Great Britain .

Merv and Afghanistan. — It was also published in
October, that an agreement existed, in which England
bound herself not to send agents to Merv, and Russia
not to send any into Afghanistan. If this be the case, we
shall hear of no more Missions to Cabul, like those
reported in or before May last, under the auspices of the
indomitable Skobeleff, who, it was said, took the oppor
tunity of conducting the Ameer's family, and a Mission at
the same time, to the then less unruly Afghan capital. In
the matter of a Resident, not knowing the Ameer's real
views on the subject, an analogy seems to exist between
the Merv Turkomans and the Government of Upper
Burma. The former were, at St. Petersburg, anxious to
cement good relations with Russia. The Russians were to
have free access and egress, all requisites for security of
trade, person and exploration ; but the Turkomans would
not have a Resident. If King Theebau would act likewise,
we might do without a Resident at Mandalay if a peaceful
reign continued.

United Burma. — And now, in conclusion, it is pleasant
to record the welcome intelligence, which became rife at
the very end of October, of the triumph of the Liberal
policy in Afghanistan. The Ameer has secured Herat,
and the prospect of a united Afghanistan seems not far
distant. Of course some of the unruly tribes will still give
trouble ; but a turbulent and stormy sea does not settle
down all at once. ** Give him time," every well-wisher of
the country must say of Abdul Rahman. Any way, there

238 ASH^ PYEE.

is a comparative calm for the present ; and our late brave
and energetic enemy, Ayub Khan, is a fugitive. The Trans-
vaal shows brighter prospects ; and if the thirteen kinglets
of Zululand would only agree with each other, that country
also might settle down with a *' message of peace" as
effectual as that which has been given to Ireland. But it
is to the hope of a united Afghanistan that the master
Pilot who has " weathered the storm " doubtless looks
with the greatest pleasure, while rejoicing at his success in
navigation through a sea of troubles."^ And if the triumph
could only be followed by a United Burma, so much the
better for humanity, commerce, and civilisation in Eastern
Asia.

Maps. — Should the readers of this little work seek for
good maps of reference, they cannot do better than, for an
admirable general map of Burma and the surrounding
countries, refer to the Map of Bengal, Burma, and parts of
China and Siam, published by the Surveyor-General of
India, and to be had of Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co. ;
also to Colonel H. Yule's original map in his account of
Sir Arthur Phayre's first mission to Ava ; also to that in
General Albert Pytche's work, Burma, Past and Present ;
for sketch maps of the trade routes to south-west
China, those in Dr. Anderson's volume. From Man-

' And O ! if again the rude whirlwind should rise,

The dawning of peace should fresh darkness deform,
The regrets of the good, and the fears of the wise,
Shall turn to the pilot that weather'd the storm 1 "

From a Song written hy Mr. Canning on Mr. Pitt in 1802.

MISCELLANEOUS EECOED. 239

dalay to Momien, will answer every purpose ; while a
good and clear raap of British Burma, by Mr. Tre-
lawney Saunders, will he found in Our Burmese Wars
and Relations with Burma. There are also other maps
of older and later date. Among the former is one
by Mr. John Arrowsmith, compiled in 1858, with additions
to 1875, entitled " Map of Burma and the Adjacent
Countries," from which a very good idea of Ashe Pyee
may be obtained.

Meaning of Ashe Pyee. — No sooner had the foregoing
Eecord gone to press, than the following concise information,
by a distinguished Burmese scholar, was gladly received by
the present writer; and as there have been inquiries about
the title of his little work — already slightly touched on — he
now gives all that can be desired on the subject : —

The literal meaning of Ashe Pyee is " the Eastern
country." It has, however, a more extensive signification
with the Burmese, and means the first, or superior
country. The heir- apparent to the throne is called leng-
Sh6-Meng, literally. Lord of the Eastern House, meaning
the first noble of the kingdom. The Burmese believe that
they belong to the Suryavansa or Solar race ; and the Sun
rising in the East, and shining from the first on their
country, that it is the first country in the w^orld !

240 ASHE PYEE.

ADDENDA TO CHAPTER IV.

TWO PEOVINCES OF SOUTH-WEST CHINA
COMMERCIALLY CONSIDERED.*

I.

The British Chambers of Commerce have for some years
been interested in the prospects of trade in western China.
Having recently written and circulated some " Notes " f on
our opening trade with south-west China, which, we
trusted, contained matter of commercial and, perhaps, also
of political importance, it was satisfactory to find them
appreciated by a high and influential authority, who also
thought that it would be a good service to look after the
route from Assam into China. Some years spent in Burma,
and having devoted a good deal of time and attention to
the affairs of that rising country, it was presumed might

* The MSS. of this paper (written in 1873-74) has been lying by
for some eventful years ; but the writer now considers it of sufficient
importance for publication, in connection with what has already been
said on the two provinces.

t General Albert Fytche's Administration of British Burma: with
Notes on opening Trade with South-West China,. London, 1873.

ADDENDA. 241

facilitate judgment ia the matter of how far the new route
from Assam (Sudiya) into Sze-Chuen (or Sechwen) is
preferable to that through northern Burma, via Bhamo,
or through Lao, on the south-east, into Yun-nan. It woa
likewise suggested that we should look up the famous old
■work of Du Halde, alluded to in Chapter V.

From an eminent living authority we learn that the
before-mentioned province of Sze-Chuen is connected with
the province of Kansuh, which was partly under the
Oovernor of " Ki," or Kuldja, now occupied by the
Russians, and which was the capital of Chinese Turkestan
when Yarkand and Kashgar were ruled by China. From
Kansuh runs the way to Chinese Turkestan. It is believed
that it would pay Russia to advance into China, especially
as the river Amoor and the territory in Manchooria would
facilitate the advance on Pekin. Some readers may
require to be reminded that Manchooria lies on the Pacific
coast, opposite Japan, and that a large tract of this region,
south of the Amoor river, has recently been ceded by
China to Russia. The Japanese island of Saghalien —
opposite Corea, a mass of coal — is about to share the
same fate.* Russia's advance to the border of China
would completely give the command of a vast commerce.
Now, here is where Russia rules. Everything is sacrificed
to her commercial monopoly in favour of her own traders,
audit is thought, by advocates of Protection, that Free Trade
would be a great disadvantage to the commercial progress
of Russia. During the China War of 1841, blue cloth was

* It has since been annexed by the Russians (1880).

16

242 ashI: ptee.

found at Ningpo, and jackets were actually made from it
for our two companies of Artillery. The cloth was marked
with Russian marks, but it was suspected to be English
cloth !

Let us now proceed with Du Halde, particularly in the
matter of the commercial importance of Yun-nan and Sze-
Chuen. In the general view of the Empire of China, we
learn that the kingdom is called by the western Mongols,
Katay \ by the Man-chew Tartars, Nikan Kuran ; and by
the Chinese, Chong-qua, The name in use with Europeans
(China) is perhaps derived from that of the first Royal
Family, which, carrying their victorious arms westward,
" occasioned the country to be called Tsi?i or Tay-tsin"
On this point, Du Halde informed us that the Emperor
Tsin Shi-whang' s fleet, which, according to Chinese history,
sailed to Bengal, must needs have made known to the
Itidians the name of the Tsin, whose power was felt at
such a distance ; *' and that name passing from the Indies
into Persia and Egypt, it is highly probable came thence
to us about the year 230 before Christ."

The learned Jesuits pay every attention to the geography
of the country ; and what they consider, " beyond all
dispute," the largest and finest " kingdom known to us,"
receives from them the following distribution of the fifteen
provinces into which it is divided : — Those of Shen-si,
Shan- si, Pe-che-li (in which is Pekin), stretch themselves
along the famous wall which on the north divides it from
Tartary ; Shan-tong, Kyan-nan, Che-kyang, and Fo-kyen,
lie along the Eastern Ocean ; those of Quang-tong
(Canton), Quang-si, Yun-nan, and Sze-chuen, lie to the

ADDENDA. 243

south and west ; lastly, the provinces Ho-nan, Hu-
quang, Quey-chew and Kiang-si, take up the middle part.
Later geographers give three more provinces, the most
important of which to us is Kansuh.

Du Halde, in his preface, alludes to the '* curious travels
of certain missionaries in China," whose relations prepare
us for the description that follows of the fifteen provinces,
presenting to our view a great number of splendid cities,
celebrated on account of their situation and extent, the
multitude of their inhabitants, the extraordinary concourse
of the Chinese drawn thither for the sake of trade. There,
also, one beholds the produce of fertile lands (which often
yield two crops in one year), in corn, trees, and remark-
able fruits ; metals of all sorts, minerals, and precious
marble, dug from the bowels of the mountains ; extra-
ordinary plants, whose roots are so wholesome, and thrive
in no other climate ; numerous lakes and canals, as well
as large and deep rivers, which abound with all kinds of
fish ; stupendous bridges ; in a word, " all the advantages
which Art and Nature can contribute for the necessaries
and pleasures of Life." *

This is really no exaggeration, as has been proved by
subsequent travellers and writers. At a time when the
scarcity or expense of coal is beginning to create some
anxiety in England, it is almost tantalising to read, in the
description of Pe-Che-Li, Che Li, or Li-Pa-Fu, the first
and chief province of the whole Empire, that its mountains
afford a great deal of pit-coal; this the Chinese burn

• Preface, p. iii.

16 *

244 ASHt PYEE.

instead of wood, which is very scarce ; and considering how
long these mines have supplied the province, one would
think thera inexhaustible. And, as if to rival the old
ladies of Great Britain in their ideas of domestic felicity,
these remarks on coal are immediately followed up by the
assertion that, " there is a particular sort of cats, with long
hair and hanging ears, which the Chinese ladies are very
fond of, and rear with a great deal of tenderness."

As there is something about this province which directly
affects the others, it may be stated that it is rendered much
more considerable by being, as it were, the rendezvous of
all the riches of the Empire ; and because all the northern
and southern provinces strive to outvie each other in
furnishing it *' with the most rare and delicious things they
produce." And, again : The inhabitants are neither so
polite nor so much addicted to the sciences as those of the
southern parts ; but they are much more robust, warlike*
and able to undergo the fatigues and hardships of war.
The same may be said of all the Chinese inhabiting the
northern provinces.

The province of Yun-nan is considered one of the richest
of the Empire, and is bounded on one side by the provinces
oi Se-chwen ^ (or Sze-Chuen), Quey-chew^ and Quartg-si;
and on the other by Tibet, some savage nations little known
(then as now), and the kingdoms of Ava, Pegu, Laos, and
Tong-King — which kingdoms, the former two especially,
liave undergone wonderful changes since Du Halde wrote.

* Du Halde also spells the word " Se-chuen " ; " Chuen," in
Chinese, a smaller river.

ADDENDA. 245

The conquest of Pegu by the Burmans, under Alompra
(founder of the present dynasty), had not taken place ; the
mighty " hunter " had not invaded Siam, which his son
Shembuan (in 1766), found himself unable permanently to
retain ; and the Chinese had not yet sent an army of
50,000 men from the western frontier of Yun-nan, which
advanced far into the country, where they were hemmed in
by the Burmans, the Tartar cavalry no longer venturing
out either to procure provisions or to protect convoys, when
the Chinese forces were attacked and almost destroyed
(a.d. 1767, or 1131 of the Burman era).

Both the kingdoms of Laos (or Lao), and Tong-king
(or Tonquin), might with advantage be opened out for the
purposes of European and Indian commerce — the former
containing excellent timber and valuable mines, and the
latter has been reported on as one of the finest countries in
the East for population and trade ; the inhabitants, in the
manufacture of silks and cottons, displaying pre-eminent
skill. Du Halde makes no particular allusion to those
kingdoms.

The province of Yun-nan contains twenty-one cities of
the first rank, and fifty-five towns, and is watered through-
out by rivers, whereof several take their rise from consider-
able lakes in the province, and render it very fruitful The
necessaries of life are cheap. The gold that is gathered
out of the sand of the rivers and torrents, which descend
from the mountains in the western part of the province,
amounts to a considerable sum ; whence it may be judged
that those mountains contain gold-mines, which would
produce "immense riches" were they properly opened.

246 ashI; pyee.

Besides the mines of common copper, found also in other
provinces, there are some of a singular kind, named
Pe-tong, which is white, hoth within and without. There is
also red amber, but no yellow ; and Yun-nan contains rubies,
sapphires, agates, pearls, and other precious stones ; also
musk, silk, frankincense, Lapis Artnenus, and very beautiful
marble. " Some of this marble," we are informed, *' which
is of divers colours, naturally represents mountains, flowers,
trees, and rivers, whereof they make tables and other
ornaments; some think that the rubies " (and the thought
is a very natural one, as Burma is famous for them) " and
other precious stones, are brought hither from the kingdom
of Ava."

II.

It is considered that the provinces of Yunnan, Quey-
chew, Sze-chuen, and Fo-kyen, are too mountainous to be
cultivated sufficiently ; but such expressions as " hideous
mountains," "almost uninhabitable mountains," in these
days of the triumphs of engineering, should not deter those
British sons of enterprise who are anxious to open the
riches and commerce of the Chinese provinces to the
world. It is an undeniable fact that the mountains of
China are most valuable, on account of the mines of
different metals. Du Halde leads us into the secret of
their being so long shut out to the Chinese, and, of course,
to the European merchants: *' The Chinese say they are
full of gold and silver, but that the working of them
hitherto has been hindered from some poUtical views —
perhaps, that the public tranquillity might not be disturbed

ADDENDA. 247

by the too great abundance of these metals, which would
make the people haughty, and negligent of agriculture."

Such ideas would have done no discredit to Adam Smith,
Mr. Mill, or the most philosophical Chancellor of the
Exchequer ! They are just what might have been expected
from a people boasting such a celebrated philosopher as
Confucius (Kong-Fu-Tse). Who can say that if we keep
well with and conciliate the Chinese, and sufficiently check
Russian progress and influence in parts of the Celestial
Empire, that, in another fifty years, the National Debt of
our glorious island-home will not fall from us like the
burden from the back of Christian ?

Tn Yun-nan, among the animals, one meets with excellent
horses, most of them of low stature, but strong and vigorous.
There are also curious stags, and golden hens. The people
*' are very strong and courageous ; besides, they are of a
mild, affable temper, and fit for the study of the sciences.'*
What a splendid field for the host of public lecturers and
would-be instructors of human kind now in England will
be afi'orded if, after we have opened a steady trade with
south-west China, they can only be induced to pay a visit
to Yun-nan !

The commercial importance of this province, it will now
be seen, is very great ; and, from Upper Burma, is of
course, the best route into south-west China. The three
difficulties to be overcome are — first, to get the King of
Burma to aid us in every possible way for his own and our
benefit ; second, to overcome by judicious management and
conciliatory behaviour the local prejudices of the people of
Yun-nan and the adjacent provinces ; and third, to provide

248 ASHi PTEE.

sufficient capital for surveys, railways, and light steamerB.
At present, the probable draw-back to Yun-nan as a
trading centie is its sparseness of population. In his
description of the province, Du Halde is not very full on
the number of inhabitants. In another part of his great
work,* however, he gives some valuable general informa-
tion— as valuable at the present time as it was 140 years
ago : The fifteen provinces, into which China is divided,
are not equally peopled ; for from Pekin to Nan-chang,
which is the capital of Kyang-si, the people are not so
numerous as in the provinces of Che-kyang, Kyang-nan,
Quang-tong, Fo-kyen, and some others, where the great
roads as well as cities are so crowded, that it is trouble-
some to travel ; whence the missionaries, who have seen
only those fine and populous provinces, have exaggerated
the number of inhabitants, which, however, far exceeds
that of all Europe put together. Although Pekin stands
on more ground than Paris, Du Halde does not believe
it contains above three millions of souls ; which compu-
tation is the more certain, as every head of a family is
obliged to give the magistrates an account of the number
of persons that compose it, with the age and sex of each.

In short, what was done in Pekin in Du Halde's time,
and had been done for many centuries before, is now
eflfected in London by our census-paper for 3j millions of
the modern Babylon ! The far-famed Smith and his
Mormons should have settled in or near China ; for, says

* Of the Antiquity and Extent of the Chinese Monarchy, voL i.
p. 240.

ADDENDA. 249

the learned Jesuit, several things contribute to make th&
country so prodigiously populous: as the Chinese being
allowed many wives ; their sobriety and strong constitutions;
their contempt for other nations, which prevents their
settling, or even travelling abroad (in this respect we all
know that a considerable change has taken place) ; the
goodness of the climate, which has been hitherto free from
the plague ; *' and especially the almost perpetual peace
which they enjoy" (which they have not enjoyed, however,
during portions of the last century, and the present).

In describing the first city of Yun-nan, the capital of
the province,* or Yun-nan-su (which has no navigable
river), it is stated that the trade for metals is greater here
than in any other province. The Chinese, Du Halde
quaintly says, make in this city a particular sort of silk
named Tong-hay-twan-tse, "that is, the Satin of the
Eastern Sea, without knowing the occasion of this name.'
It is made of twisted silk, is not flowered, and without any
gloss. They dye it with all sorts of colours, as they do the
Twan-tse, or common satin ; but it appears " neither bright
nor lively." We were going to have recommended a
ribbon of the above very long name to the attention of the
silk-mercers of London, who are often in a difficulty as
to the best material and colour for a new ribbon ; but this
silk being " neither bright nor lively " would hardly suit ;
still, there is no doubt that the most fastidious young lady
or fashionable matron in London or Paris could be suited
in Yun-nan.

* A Chinese prince formerly kept his court here ; but taking up
arms against the Tartars in 1679, his family was ruined.

250 ashI: pyee.

They also make good carpets in Yun-nan-su. In
Du Halde's time, the province had more reputation than
wealth; and, what agrees with Sir George Balfour*s
estimate, the shops were found to be indifferently furnished,
the dealers poor, the buildings mean, and the concourse of
people not very great, if compared with what is seen in
most of the other capitals of provinces. But the whole
country (Yun-nan) is agreeable and fertile, consisting
partly in little hills, and partly in large plains. The
waters are very good, the climate temperate, and the canals
give an easy admittance to vessels. Commercially con-
sidered, therefore, we should certainly like to see Yun-nan
opened to British enterprise ; and, whatever the difficulties
may be (which would with our customary perseverance be
overcome), our possession of Pegu and the Delta of the
Irawadi — to say nothing of our growing influence in
Chin-India — affords an opportunity for commerce which
we never possessed before ; we should, therefore, take the
tide '* at the flood," while it may lead on to fortune. If
the Russians once get hold of Yun-nan, or any of the
adjacent provinces to Upper Burma, the Golden Foot
will certainly be in a fair way of losing his much-loved
inheritance of the house of Alompra. The Chinese inha-
bitants of Yun-nan in Du Halde's time — and they cannot
have changed much since — have a smack of the English
character about them — are endued with wit and courage,
and addicted to arms or agriculture. In the second city,
Ta-li-fu, are made tables and other ornaments of that most
beautiful marble, " dug out of the mountain Tyen-sung ;
and which is naturally variegated with so many different

ADDENDA. 251

-colours, that one would think the mountains, flowers,
trees, and rivers represented thereon were drawn by a skilful
painter." In Du Halde's time, Ta-li-fu — built like the
capital, on a lake— was very populous ; but now, from the
recent disturbances caused by the Panthays (Mahomedans),
and various local causes, we may safely conclude that the
population has seriously diminished, and is inconsiderable.
In the fifth city, Chin-kyang-fu, the inhabitants are
described as making cotton carpets, " which are much
esteemed." The country where the sixth city, King-
tong-su, stands, is full of very high mountains, said to
contain silver mines. The land produces abundant rice, and
the valleys are well watered with brooks and rivers. On
the west of this city, the Jesuits found an iron suspen-
sion bridge, or bridge " supported by iron chains," the
crossing of which must have been a severe trial for the
nervous. The sight of the precipices, the agitation of
the bridge, while many passengers were on it at once,
never failed to terrify those who had not passed over it
before,

III.

The tenth city, Ku-tsing-fu, would suit a large class of
British lawyers admirably. It is situated in ;i fruitful
country. The inhabitants are very laborious, aud improve
every inch of land ; but they are so " litigious," that they
spend *' the best part of their effects at law." A good
many years ago, the writer of this paper met a friend in
London, with a very long and dejected visage. He seemed
to be preparing for some journey or voyage. " Where are

252 ASHi PYEE.

you going ? " was asked. " To New Zealand, — the lawyers
have driven me out of the country," was the reply. But
oar ruined friend would have gone from the frying-pan
into the fire, had he decided on emigrating to such a city
as Ku-tsing-fu, in Yun-nan.

The twelfth city, Ko-king-su, is situated in a country
producing musk and pine-apples Most heautiful carpets-
were made here. Gold is said to be in the mountains,
bordering on the country of the Si-fan, or territories of the
Lamas.

The inhabitants of the fourteenth city, Li-kyang-tu-su,
and the territory belonging to it, are said to be descended
from the ancient colonies of the Chinese, who settled here.
The city is surrounded by mountains (separating it from
the dominions of the Lamas), wherein, doubtless, are gold
mines. The whole country is described as well watered
and fertile, yielding amber and pine-apples.

The fifteenth city, Ywen-kyang-su, stands on a pretty
large river, called Ho-li-kyang ("Kyang" river). The
country is mountainous, and its plains are watered by
several rivers. It furnishes abundance of silk, ebony, and
beautiful peacocks.

The sixteenth city, Mong-wha-su, is in a country which
furnishes a greater quantity of musk than any other in the
whole Empire.

The seventeenth, Yung-chang-fu, is described as a pretty
large and populous city, and is situated among mountains,
near an extremity of the province, in the neighbourhood
of a rather savage people. This would appear to be a
country well adapted to hinder the spread of civilisation,.

ADDENDA. 253

which, on the other hand, a steady commercial intercourse
would do much to advance. The country furnishes gold,
honey, wax, amber, and plenty of good silk.

Yungning-tu-fu is at the end of the province. There is
a line lake on the east side of this eighteenth city, " with
four littles islets in it, which appear above water in pretty
•eminences." The dominions of the Lamas nearly skirt
this city. Here, as well as in Tibet, the tails of a par-
ticular " sort of cows " are utilised to an amazing extent.
Stuffs are made of them which are proof against rain ; they
€ven form the material for excellent carpets ; and " the
Chinese officers employ them also in adorning their stan-
dnrds and helmets "

The last, or twenty-first city, San-ta-fu, stands on the
borders of the kingdom of Ava, and is described by Du
Halde as " properly a fortress to defend the frontiers "
The whole country is mountainous; the valleys are well
watered with rivers ; and the soil is consequently fertile.

We trust that the commercial advantages of Yun-nan
have now been sufficiently noted ; but, before going to
Sze-chuen, it may be remarked that the fifteenth or adjoin
ing province of Quey-chew is a very important one.
True, many of its mountains are considered to be inacces-
sible; but it contained in Du Halde's time numerous forts,
and military places ; and he tells us that the Chinese
emperors, in order to people this province, often sent
colonies hither, and even " Governors with their whole
families." The mountains afford mines of gold, silver, and
mercury ; there is also copper to be found. They have no
manufactures for silks in this province, but stuffs are

254 ASKfc PYEE.

made of a certain fibre, resembling hemp, "very fit for
summer wear." Here are numbers of cows, hogs, and wild
fowl, and — a most important item of knowledge for the
enterprising Briton who may hereafter settle in south-west
China — " the best horses " in the Empire. The province
just mentioned is situated between those of Hu-quangy
Sze-chuen, Vun-nan, and Quang-si. Let us now turn for
a little to Sze-chuen, to which province Sir George
Balfour — ever alive to the interests of commerce — was
good enough to introduce us.

Sze-chuen, in extent or plenty, is not inferior to any of
the other provinces. It is bounded on the north by that
of Shen-si ; on the east by Hu-quang ; on the south by
Hu-quang and Yun-na?t : and on the west by the kingdom
of Tibet, "and certain neighbouring people." In Du
Halde's time, it was divided into ten districts, comprising
ten cities of the first rank, and many of the second and
third, besides a great number of fortified towns and
smaller forts. The great river Ya7ig-tse-kyang (Child of
the Ocean) runs through the province, which is described
as very rich, not only on account of the vast quantity of
silk produced, but also in iron, tin, and lead. Here are
also amber, sugar-canes, excellent loadstones, and Lapis
Armenus, the stone of " a very beautiful blue." The
horses used to be very much esteemed on account of their
being " little, very pretty, and exceedingly swift." Here
are also stags, deer, partridges, parrots, " and a sort of
hen with wool like that of sheep, instead of feathers."
These strange fowl are " very small, have short feet, and
are highly esteemed by the Chinese ladies, who keep them

ADDENDA. 2«55

for their amusement."* The best rhubarb comes from
Sze-chuen. Fu-lin is another most efficacious root, which
might, with the valuable Fen-se,he introduced to British phy-
sicians. Chinese physicians are fond of prescribing certain
barks and roots in almost all cases; from which we may
perhaps safely affirm that the medical quacks of our own
country have not even the merit of originality about them,
but have borrowed from the Chinese. Sze-chuen is far
from the sea, and it is difficult to bring salt hither; but
wells are dug in the mountains from which they get salt
water, which being *' evaporated by fire," leaves a salt
behind, but not so good as that of the sea.

The first city of this province is styled Ching-tu-fu, the
capital, formerly one of the finest cities in the Empire, but
was ruined, w^ith the whole province, in 1646, by the civil
wars preceding the change in the dynasty. It retains
little or nothing of its former splendour, but in Du Halde's
time the city was very populous, and of great trade. Now,
here is a most important matter for consideration. The
territory of Ching-tu-fu is the only one that is plain in all
the province; it is watered by canals, cut from the Ta-
kyang, which there is very gentle ; but when that river
passes out of Sze-chuen into Bu-quang, it becomes very
dangerous, " as well on account of the rapidity of its
stream, as its being encumbered with rocks, which the
country is full of."

The situation of the second city, between two small
rivers, renders it agreeable and of pretty good trade. The

* Vol. i. p. 111.

256 Asni pteb.

Jesuits found the houses to he well built, and the country
depending on it as it were " covered with mountains," but
still affording no disagreeable prospect, " especially those
that are cultivated and covered with forests."

IV.

Shun-king-fu, the third city, stands on a fair river. The
country around yields abundance of silk, and oranges of
all sorts, also various roots.

The situation of the fourth city, on the banks of the
Yang-tse-kyang, renders it, says Du Halde, " a place of
great trade as well as note ; and opens a communication
with several other cities of the province, besides the
capital." The country though mountainous, is described
as very fertile, wanting nothing for the pleasures or con-
veniences of life.

Here are, as in India, *' Bambu " canes in abundance,
which the Chinese put to many more uses than the
Hindus.

The fifth city, Chong-king-fu, is described as one of the
handsomest and most trading cities in the province.
Standing at the confluence of two remarkable rivers, its
commerce is facilitated with the whole province of
Sze-chuen. One of those rivers is called Kin-sha-kyang^
or " the river of Golden Sand,'' which on its way from the
province of Yun-nan collects all the waters of the moun-
tains on the side of Tartary ; the other, which rises still
further beyond the borders of China, is properly the Ta-
kyang, though it goes by various names according to the
place through which it passes. It is also styled the Yang-

ADDENDA. 257

tso-kyang. Chong-king-fii is built on a mountaiD, and
would seem to resemble portions of Torquay in Devonshire,
*' where the houses seem to rise one above another, in form
of an amphitheatre."

The air of the country is considered healthful and
temperate. The lands being of vast extent, intermingled
with plains and mountains, would seem altogether to form
no unseemly temple for Commerce to dwell in, under the
auspices of British enterprise. The rivers are filled with
good fish and tortoises, the latter being much esteemed.

As the sixth city, Quey-chew-fu, on the great Yang-tse-
kyang, appears on entering the province, in Du Halde's
time there was, and probably is now, a custom-house
for receiving the duties on goods brought thither. The
trade of this city rendered it very rich. Although a
mountainous country, the industry of the husbandmen has
made it very fertile, there not being an inch of land
uncultivated. Du Halde quaintly says : — " In the most
northerly parts, the mountains, which are very ragged and
difficult of ascent, are inhabited by a very clownish sort of
people,''^ quite unlike the Chinese commonalty.

The situation of the seventh city, Ma-hu-fu, on the
Kin-sha-kyaug, in a small territory, but well watered, and
very fruitful, is said to procure it the advantages of trade.

Long-ngan-fu, the eighth cityjof Sze-chuen, was con-
sidered in Du Halde's time to be the key of the province.
It commanded several forts which were formerly used
to defend the country from Tartar invasion. The key
could hardly be in a better position than among steep
mountains and fertile valleys.

17

258 ASH^ PTEE.

The ninth city, Thun-i-fu, lies on the borders of the
province of Quey-cheiv, defending the entrance of it on
that side. The country is mountainous, well watered, and
fertile.

We now come to the tenth, or last principal city, Tong-
chwen-fu, which is styled a military place. Tt used to he
the Chelsea Hospital of China, the inhabitants being old
soldiers, who from father to son had been bred up to arms.
But, besides their pay, they had lands assigned to them
near the cities they inhabited (the other two military cities
were U-mong-tu-fu and Chin-hyung'tu-fxi). These troops,
as is customary at the present day, were disbanded in time
of peace, but to make them amends, they were distributed
into all the frontier garrisons of the Empire.

Among the other less important cities in the province of
Sze-chuen, is Tong-chwen-chew, whose district is very
fruitful, being watered by several rivers. The air is
healthy, and the mountains and plains are well cultivated.
The country produces abundance of sugar-canes, from
which exceedingly good sugar is made. Du Halde also
remarks that " very populous boroughs are seen in great
number."

There is also Kya-ting-chew, in a territory watered by
many rivers, furnishing plenty of rice and musk; and
Ya-chew, a city lying nearest Tibet, commanding several
forts, and built on the borders of the province. " Forts,
or places of war," are stated to be numerous in Sze-chuen ;
but as our mission, if we went there, would be the peaceful
one of commerce, we need hardly trouble ourselves about
them at present.

ADDENDA. 259

Having now, we trust, said enough to give the British
merchant an idea of the commercial importance of Sze-chuen
(chiefly from Du Halde), we shall repeat that General Sir
George Balfour, who did good service in the China War of
1840-41-42, who has given much attention to Chinese
affairs, and who now sits in the House of Commons, very
recently evinced a preference for the route from Assam
(Sudiya) to Sze-chuen. We then join a part of China
singularly free from trouhles, a dense population, and great
resources in minerals, and very much in want of the tea
which Assam can supply. Sir George studied the route
from India to China in 1840 to 1846, with the famous
Gutzlaff, and having also the advantage of the information
of a Chinese officer who had been twenty years in Yun-nan,
he came to the conclusion that of all the provinces Sze-
chuen was the one of greatest importance. He considered
the population of Sze-chuen infinitely greater than that of
Yun-nan, but the grand climax of his argument consists in
Sze-chuen being close to Sudiya in Assam. Eegarding
Yun-nan, he thinks that we are worse off for information
about that province than for all other parts of China. We
trust that the information which has now been culled from
the old pages of Du Halde, will do much to supply the
deficiency of knowledge regarding Yun-nan. The Eussians
— fast making way in Central Asia — are already alive to
our neighbourhood to the province of Sze-chuen, and there
can be no doubt anticipate our entrance into it. If we,
therefore, fail to do something in this quarter, the Russians
will certainly checkmate us in the political (and, of course,
in the commercial) game which the two greatest empires

17 •

260 ASH^ PYEE.

in the world are now playing in Asia. China and Burma,
beyond a doubt, have yet to play mighty parts in the
history of British commerce. Let us do our utmost to see
that we play ours fearlessly and well ! Sir George Balfour
remarks that the events of the last twenty-five years have
not improved Yun-nan. We have already alluded to the
once famous city of Ta-li-fu, for many years capital of the
Mahomedan provinces of western China. Intelligence
from Rangoon in May last informed us that, about
January (1873), the city of Ta-li-fu had been taken by a
Chinese army, that the Sultan Soliman, who reigned over
those countries had poisoned himself, and that the popu-
lation of the place, without excepting women and children,
had been massacred by the conquerors. Thirty thousand
persons were reported to have been slaughtered. Such a
wholesale massacre had rarely been heard of, even in
(]hina. At first we doubted the authenticity of the intelli-
gence, but, after strict inquiry, we are afraid that it is
quite true. The Chinese would rather have the Cross than
Islam, which they hope to see speedily wither away.
Inquiry as to Mahomedans in Sze-chuen, from one of the
highest authorities on such matters in this country, pro-
duced the following information : — That the province of
Sze-chuen is purely Chinese. If there were any Maho-
medans within at any time, they were drawn off into the
neighbouring province of Yun-nan, when the Mahomedans
got the ascendancy there. Our informant had no doubt
that the Chinese had captured Talifoo (another spelling of
the word), and massacred the inhabitants. If they
reconquer the province entirely, it may be for our good.

ADDENDA. 261

supposing that they will reopen the trade. As the Chinese
at present show a disposition to be friendly with us, why
should Great Britain not meet them half-way in the
pursuit of commerce in the two provinces of Szechuen
and Yun-nan ? With regard to the safety of our Indian
Empire, in 1868, we ought not to have allowed the
Eussians to advance beyond Samarcand. Be this as it
may, for the sake of British commerce in the East, let
us not remain inactive, and destroy the splendid trade
prospects in view with regard to Upper Burma and south-
west China !

262 ASHi PYEE,

NOTES

NOTE I.

The Anglo-Burmese Treaty of 1867; and some of
its effects at the present time.

Arms,

1. The grand difficulty in a peaceful settlement of the
present unsatisfactory condition of affairs in Upper Burma
will, doubtless, consist in making a new treaty.

It is, in a great measure, our own fault that such a state
of things should have arisen ; but it can even now be at
least partially rectified by decision of character and com-
petent statesmanship. On account of the threatening
aspect of afi'airs in Eastern Asia, even if it had never been
in contemplation to make a new treaty, the eighth Article
of that of 1867 demands serious attention.

It is therein stated that the Burmese Government " shall
be allowed permission to purchase arms, ammunition, and
war materials generally in British territory, subject only to
the consent and approval of the Chief Commissioner of
British Burma and Agent to the Governor-General." But
it is known to few that the Chief Commissioner, in a

NOTES. 263

separate article, agreed that " as long as we were at peace with
Burma, arms, under the treaty, would not be refused." The
Government ratified the treaty, and took no notice of this
extra or separate article. The king (Mengdon, Theebau's
father), then asked for arms, as we were at peace. They
were refused ; seeming very like repudiation, or a breach
of faith on our part. Or, it might be said, as to the Treaty
of 1867, that we first ratified it, saying not a word about
the arms, and then repudiated the arrangement. Had I
known these facts — derived from the highest authority — at
the time I wrote the conclusion of my work on Our
Burmese Wars, and Relations with BurmUy^ ever wishing
to write history honestly, I should certainly have mentioned
them. However, a detailed history of Burma during the
last twenty years remains to be written.

In a telegram from Eangoon (dated 23rd of May 18B0),
I find, among the principal points in the " treaty submitted
by the Burmese Embassy and rejected by us," that of *' the
Burmese to be allowed to import arms and munitions of
war, subject to the approval of the Chief Commissioner,
who must not refuse his consent if friendly relations
prevail." \ Here we have the formerly, by us, unnoticed
clause or article of the Treaty of 1867 brought up again,
at a time when it would be extremely dangerous to allow
our aiding the Golden Foot — especially a slippery one like
the present — with arms at all. Probably, with the usual
Burmese cunning, the diplomatist who brought]forward this
desired point in a new treaty, wished to see how we would

* See pp. 384-385.

t See Daily News, May 24th, 1880.

264 ASHfe PTEE.

again treat the all-important question of arms. I have
already said''^ that it would have been better had there been
no mention of arms in the Treaty of 1867, leaving the
matter entirely to the Chief Commissioner's good-will and
discretion, without any written expression to this effect.
And, perhaps, I should have added : But if it were abso-
lutely necessary that the question of arms should be
brought into the treaty, then it would have been better to
have had the emphatic declaration that no purchase, by the
King or his agents, of arms, ammunition, and war mate-
rials generally would be allowed in British territory, for
use in Upper Burma, or to the northward, on any pretext
whatever. The prohibition would be absolutely essential
in the event of hostilities between Russia and China.

Royal Monopolies.

It will take the Burmese a long time — especially the
Golden Foot — to master the principles of Free Trade.
But it should be kept in mind that the loss of Pegu and
all his ports, partly, if not wholly, caused the monopolizing
sentiments of the King. It is simply a matter of, "You
have taken nearly all, and I shall keep the rest entirely ta
myself." In lH55, the King said to the Chief Commis-
sioner : '* If a treaty is made, there must be * mutual
advantage,'" foreshadowing the question of "reciprocity"
so much discussed of late. As remarked elsewhere,t after
1862, other obstacles to Free Trade arose, the principle of

* Our Burmese Wars, dtc, p. 385. f Ibid., p. 380.

NOTES. 265

which was that nearly every article of produce in Upper
Burma was a Royal monoply. Even in 1866, the King
would not reduce his frontier duties (although we had
abolished ours), nor forego any one of his monopolies.
By the Treaty of 1867, true enough, the subjects of the
two Governments were allowed " free trade in the import
and export of gold and silver bullion between the twa
countries." * But the principle must be greatly extended
for the sake of " mutual advantage " to Upper and Lower
Burma. In the treaty of the present year (1880), put forward
by the Burmese Embassy,^the clause ** the petroleum, teak,
and rubies monopolies to be continued," is simply a
repetition of the first article of the Treaty of 1867, which
commences with : " Save and except earth oil, timber, and
precious stones, which are hereby reserved as Royal mono-
polies," &c. With the abolition of all Royal monopolies
in Upper Burma, and the probability of a rapidly increasing
trade with south-western China, at no very distant period,
notwithstanding the vast difference in population, the trade
of British Burma will rival that of British India.

Eastern and Western Karennee.

No treaty concluded with Upper Burma would be safe or
complete without the acknowledgment of the independence,
under our supervision, of eastern, as well as western,
Karennee. As stated in my larger work,t the whole of the
Karennee country may be considered by us of great politi-
cal, as well as strategical importance In the event of a

* Our Burmese Wart, dtc, p. 384. Ibid., p. 412.

266 Asnfe PYEE.

long war between Russia and China, now or hereafter, such
positioDs held by us would be invaluable for the conduct
or base of operations, if such were necessary, by the British
troops in various portions of Eastern Asia. [On the
other hand, although the possession of both Karennees
would be convenient, we have no actual right to Eastern.]

The Resident at Mandalay .

After the absence of a British Resident from the capital
for so long a period, it is absolutely necessary that one
should be appointed without delay, if we would regain the
prestige we have (in the opinion of some unavoidably) lost
in the country by the withdrawal of that important
functionary last year. In the event of King Theebau
coming to his senses, and evinciug a conciliatory dis-
position, it might be desirable not only to have a strongly-
armed guard for the Resident at Mandalay, but also a
small British force, with artillery, near or on the river.
Such an arrangement might be entered in any new treaty;
and such would be especially valuable as an advanced post
at a time when it is impossible to say how long peace may
reign in any part of Eastern Asia. The establishment of
a Resident by the British Government is provided for by
the fifth article of the Treaty of 1867, and has again been
recently mentioned by the Burmese Embassy. As, doubtless,
the Indian Government have thought. Residencies at Ran-
goon or Calcutta would be utterly useless. What we want
is, if we are not to have the strong hold on Upper Burma
which British occupation alone could give, some security
for the future good-conduct of the King and the safety and

NOTES. 267

prosperity of his subjects; and, as our next-door neigh-
bour, so much depending on the actions of the Golden Foot
with reference to peace and prosperity in Lower, or British,
Burma, some effectual guarantee that the extraordinary
massacres and vagaries of the past year or two shall not
again occur without the severest displeasure, followed by
the prompt action, of the British Government * [With
reference to my remark, suggesting a small British force,
with artillery, near Mandalay, or on the river, a great
authority has written to me that it would be a most per-
nicious measure, unless we meant to annex.]

Digest of the new/ y -proposed Treaty,

In order to give full information regarding this important
treaty, the re-publication of the following, from the Daily
News, of the 9th July 1880, will be of good service. The
able correspondent at Rangoon, writing towards the middle
of June, remarks : —

"I have already sent you the most salient points of the
treaty which the Naingangya Woondouk proposed to our
Government for adoption. The following is a digest of the
entire thing : —

** * 1. Sets forth that perpetual friendship is to subsist
between the contracting nations. 2. The two Governments
are to refrain from any action which might injure each
other's interests. 3. Residencies are to be established in

* In addition to our always having ready a sufficiency of troops in
Pegu for any emergency, the British Burma ports— especially Maul-
main, Bassein, and Akyab — should all be well fortified. We have not
yet given sufficient attention to harbour defences.

268 ASH^ PYEE.

Mandalay and Rangoon, or Calcutta, as may be arranged^
with power to the Burmese to send a Consul to London.
4. Each Resident is to decide law-suits between subjects of
his own country according to their own laws. 5. Criminals
are to be tried by the judges and according to the laws of
the country where the oiFence has been committed. 6. Ex-
tradition clause referring specially to theft, embezzlement^
and murder, to be in force. 7. Political offenders against
the Burmese Government taking refuge in the British Resi-
dency at Mandalay to be delivered up to the Burmese
authorities, and vice versa. 8. British subjects are to be
allowed full liberty to work mines others than those for
precious stones in Burmese territory. 9. Vessels and
traders are to be perfectly free to come and go to every part
of both countries. 10. They shall be subject, however, to
the laws of the country in which they trade. 11. Traders
are not to be hindered in carrying on business in either
country. 12. Suitable ground for a Residency is to be
granted by either Government. 13. Customs authorities
may open packages in transit in order to satisfy themselves
that the contents are according to declaration. Transit
duty shall be one per cent, either way. 14. Most favoured
nation clause. 15. Petroleum, teak, and precious stones
are reserved by the Burmese Government, and may only be
worked subject to such royalty as may be determined on.
Other goods will be subject to the following duties in
Burmese territory : — Opium and spirits, 30 per cent. ; pro-
visions, 5 per cent , except paddy and rice, which will be
free ; all other goods 10 per cent. 16. A tonnage duty to-
be levied at the rate of 8 annas per ton on all vessels

NOTES. 269

below 150 tons, and 1 anna per ton above that capacity.
17. Vessels are to load and discharge under the orders of
the chief authority of the port. 18. The Burmese Grovern-
ment are to be allowed to import arms, ammunition, sliips
of war, &c., subject to the approval of the Chief Commis-
sioner, who is not to withhold his permission so long as
friendly terms are maintained between the two Govern-
ments, as provided in Clause 8 of the Treaty of 1867, con-
cluded by Colonel Fytche. 19. The provisions of former
treaties are to hold good, except where they are superseded
or contradicted by the foregoing.'

" You will see, therefore, that the great Shoe Question is
ignored altogether, or, rather, is retained by Clause XIX.
The next most objectionable point is that which renews
Fytche's treaty, whereby the Burmese were enabled to im-
port as many arms as they liked, and that is a serious
matter now-a-days, when Gatling guns are so easily worked,
and Martinis make an enemy, that can fire at all, formidable
enough for the best troops. The reservations of petroleum,
teak, and precious stones really shut up the most valuable
products of the country. Finally, the demand that politi-
cal offenders shall be given up from the British Residency,
is a direct charge of illegal action against the late Mr.
Shaw for refusing to deliver up the Nyoung Yan and
Nyoung Oke Princes."

I shall here remark that when the Burmese Government
asked our Government that the dacoits (as the astute Bur-
mans were pleased to term the rebels), who escaped into
British territory after a fight, should be arrested, the Gov-
ernment replied that the affair appeared to be a political

270 ASHfe PYEE.

rising. The Burmese Government again wrote, forwarding
some captives' statements that certain of our ofl&ciala
assisted and encouraged the insurgents, " but our Govern-
ment denied the charge." Utter imbecility was shown by
King Theebau during the whole of this rebellion. When
the Burmese Government wrote to our Government that a
dacoity had been committed near the frontier, and that the
offenders had escaped into our territory, they demanded
their delivery. The Eangoon Government very properly
replied that it was not our custom to deliver up political
offenders. The Foreign Minister at Mandalay had acknow-
ledged the receipt of a letter regarding the detention of the
British steamer at Sillaymyo, and had promised an inquiry
and redress.

NOTE II.
French View of Burma.

Early in the year, the Paris Nouvelle Revue, contained
an article by M. Voisson on Burma and Tonquin. It was
written with something like a better knowledge of our
intentions than we have ourselves : — " When the moment
arrives, says the author of this article, England intends to
place Nyoung Yan on the throne, and thus establish
English supremacy in the land. Far from blaming this
policy, M. Voisson finds that it is worthy of being followed,
and advises France to adopt it in Tonquin. He is of
opinion that, as in the interests of commerce and humanity

NOTES. 271

England is endeavouring to establish her supremacy in
Burma, France should also definitively consolidate hers
in Tonquin."*

NOTE III.
Pegu Jars. — Nga-pee.

In addition to the manufactures in Pegu alluded to
in these pages, the following may be given : — ^t Jwan-te
are made large water or oil jars, glazed outside with a
mixture of galena and rice-water, some standing four
feet high, commonly known as '* Pegu jars," which are
used throughout Burma. Again, in a leading ** Review,"
having been accused of saying nothing about Nga-pee —
the very smell of which, in a putrid state, was terrible
in the last war — the following information, it is to be
hoped, will supply the omission : — " Nga-pee is made
principally in the Ru-gyee township. It is of two kinds,
one called Nga-pee-goung, and the other Toung-tha-nga-
pee. Nga-pee-goung again consists of the ordinary Nga-
pee-goung, such as is made here, and of Nga-tha-louk
Nga-pee, made from the Nga-tha-louk or Hilsa (Clupea
palasah). In making the ordinary Nga-pee-goung, the
fish are scaled — if large, by hand; if small, by means of
a bamboo, with the end made into a kind of stijff brush,
and worked amongst a mass thrown together, almost alive,
into a wooden mortar, cleaned, and the heads of the large
ones cut off."

• Correspondent of the Standard, Paris, January 28th, 1880.

272 ASHfe PYEE.

They are then well rubbed with salt, and carefully
packed into a bamboo basket, and weights placed on the
top. Here they are left for a night, the liquid draining
away through the basket. Next morning they are taken
out, rubbed with salt, and spread out on a mat, and the
next day they are put away with alternate layers of salt
in large jars, and left in a cool place. In a month the
liquid which has come to the top has evaporated, and left
a layer of salt, and they are ready for sale. Sometimes
the supernatant liquid gets full of maggots before com-
pletely drying up ; in this case it is taken off and more
salt added. It is a great object both to the makers and
to the cooks to keep the fish whole. They are eaten
roasted, fried, or in curries. In making Toung-tha
N^a-pee, which must not be confounded with Bhala-Khyan
vel Tsien tsa (because it can be eaten uncooked) vel Nga-
pee-hgnyeng (Arakan), vel Grwai (Tavoy and Mergui), the
fish are scaled, and in large fish the head is removed, and
the body cut up. They are soaked in brine for a night,
taken out and exposed to the sun on a mat till they begin
to turn putrid, and then brayed in a mortar with salt and
packed away in any receptacle, and kept for two or three
months, by which time the paste is fit for sale. This is
made into a kind of sauce with other ingredients, and is
used as a condiment."

NOTES. 273

NOTE IV.

Effect of Opium in Burma. — Opium Traffic and
Revenue.

In a report issued (end of 1880), it is stated " that the
subject of the traffic in opium, and of the eflFect of the
use of the drug upon the people of Burma, engaged
the serious attention of the Chief Commissioner during the
year, and in May a memorandum on the question by
Mr. Aitchison, with the reports of Commissioners and
district officers, and the opinions of a large number of
persons, native and European, was submitted for the
■consideration of the Government of India. One point
raised was the extent to which the consumption of opium
was promoted by the establishment of shops for the sale
of the drug, and Commissioners were called on to report
on the various shops in their divisions, and to offer
recommendations, with reasons for their maintenance or
abolition. When all these reports have been received, the
number of shops to be kept open for the future will be
regulated. The officer of the Prome district says. —

" These shops are centres from which opium is distri-
buted all over the district. The police are powerless to
stop, or, in fact, to check the evil. There is reason to
believe that the opium license-holders have their agents
scattered freely everywhere. These men buy the opium at
the shops in large quantities, at a comparatively cheap
rate, and take it with them to their villages. To confirmed

18

274 ASH^ PYEE.

opium consumers the drug is sold in its crude state ; to
novices, or to those altogether ignorant of the taste of
opium, a preparation called koon-bone is sold or given
away. Koon-bone is sliced betel-leaf, steeped in a
decoction of opium, and is chewed. It is made up in
small packets which are sold at a pice or two a packet, or
more frequently, perhaps, given away gratis, especially if
the victim be a lad twelve or fourteen years old. Pure
opium would probably at first inspire disgust in one so
young. His tastes are, therefore, consulted, and he is
invited to take the drug in a milder form. Thus he is
allured to evil courses, which soon develop into evil habits,
the sequel to which is disgrace and ruin.

" The Chief Commissioner admits that if the practices
here described are prevalent, a reform of the law is
urgently demanded, but he says it is difiBcult to believe that
such deliberate and systematic demoralisation of youth
can be carried on to any considerable extent."

On Monday, June 27th, 1881, the opium traffic in
British Burma was alluded to in the House of Commons.
" The Marquis of Hartington informed Sir W. Lawson
that the principal recommendations of the Chief Com-
missioner of British Burma (Mr. Aitchison), with respect
to the opium trafific had been carried out. The number
of opium shops had been reduced from sixty- eight
to twenty seven ; and the rates at which opium was
supplied to the farmer, licensed vendor, and medical
practitioner have been raised."

Again, on the 4th July, opium came before the House
"with reference to British Burma.

NOTES. 275

" The Marquis of Hartington, in answer to Mr.
O'Donnell, said it appeared that the recent increase in the
revenue of British Burma was greatly due to the increased
consumption of opium, and that, the subject having been
brought under the notice of the Government, measures
were taken to check the consumption, which would involve
a sacrifice of revenue to the extent of ^950,000 a year. The
increased consumption of spirits in Burma and Bengal was
attributed in a great measure to the general increase of
prosperity, and to some extent to the adoption of the out-
stilled liquor system, whereby a weaker spirit was provided.
It was believed that there had been no increase of drunken-
ness in consequence of the adoption of that system." —
Standard, July 5, 1881.

NOTE V.

Eelative Cost of the Afghan and Burmese Wars.

The difiBculty in estimating the cost of a war was com-
mented on by the *'Iron Duke '* ;(see "Despatches "), and
the great commanders before him. The more you face it,
the more you get into the mire, where you are stuck fast,
o'erclouded by numerous probable, unforeseen expenses.
Even when the war is done, not unfrequently there is no
satisfactory statement of the cost forthcoming. A large
portion of the account is a mere conjecture ; and so the
best financiers often become sorely puzzled at the result.
Of course, it should be less so than ever in an age like
the present. Looking over a Parliamentary paper of

18 *

276 ASHfe PYEE.

twenty-two years ago, it is interesting at the present time
to scan the " Keturn of the Total Charge, so far as the
same can be estimated, of the Afghan War, the First and
Second China Wars, and the Persian War." And next we
have, " the estimated cost of the late Rebellion up to the
end of the financial year, 1859-60," amounting to the
enormous sum of £28,724,814, exclusive of probable
excess in compensation for property. It was not practic-
able from the accounts to form an accurate estimate of the
cost of the First Afghan War ; but in another return it
came out to be, from May 1838 to May 1842, nearly nine
millions sterling. With regard to the China wars, the
chief expenses of the First were defrayed by Her Majesty's
Government ; of the Second, no estimate could be rendered ;
while of the Persian War extraordinary expenses, estimated
at £2,195,728, one moiety was chargeable to India. The
cost of the Persian is an approximation to that of the
Second Burmese War — considering the grand results,
the least expensive war in our Eastern history. With
reference to the First Afghan War, it may also be stated
that the information is highly unsatisfactory. It i-uns
thus : — " The charges of the Afghan War enter into the
accounts of many years subsequent to its termination*';
and a very large proportion of the expenses was not sepa-
rated from the ordinary military charges. Notwithstanding
the low statement of cost above noted, in the unpublished
return, some judges consider that it may have been nearly
£20,000,000 ; about the cost of the recent, or Second
Afghan War, which has cost more than the First and
Second Burmese Wars put together. At this rate, then, the

NOTES. 277

relative cost of the Afghan and Burmese Wars may be set
down at, say, forty millions versus eighteen ; while the
revenues of British Burma have, over and over again, paid
all expenses of the conquest. It may satisfy to give a
few details. One of the most expensive wars in our Indian
history — the First Burmese War — has now been eclipsed
by the Second Afghan War — the relative cost being
^15,000,000 and £18,000,000 or £20,000,000, The
Second Burmese War may be fairly put down at
£3,000,000 ; but, as to the grand result, in comparison
with Afghanistan — or putting beside it Burma, with a
brighter future before it than any other country in Asia —

" Look here upon this picture, and on this."

The Parliamentary paper, published in the middle of
January 1881, from information called for by Lord Harting-
ton, who desired that " the most complete statement as to
the expenditure incurred in the Afghan War " should be
laid before Parliament, gives the total of an estimate, in-
cluding the cost of the occupation of Candahar, to the end
of March, of a little over eighteen millions sterling ! We
may safely say about £19,000,000. At a later period the
author wrote, with reference to the relative cost, repeating
much of what is above stated, but introducing another
view of the question : — When we come to think that the
last Afghan War, without the slightest prospect of a
return, has cost us about £19,000,000 sterling, or con-
siderably more than double the expense of the disastrous
Afghan campaigns of from 183H to 1842 (if we take the
lower or unpublished estimate), and four millions more

278 ASHE PYEE.

than the extravagant First Burmese War of 1824-26 —
which gave us the fertile provinces of Arakan and Tenas-
serim — and about six times the cost of the Second Bur-
mese War, ivhich was ?wi a million more than half the
deficit in the late Afghan eatimate, and which gave us
Pegu, *' a princess among the provinces," with the other two
forming British Burma, with its great commercial port of
Rangoon, the future Liverpool or Glasgow of Eastern Asia,
which possessions, chiefly through commercial prosperity,
have been making many rich, and furnishing during many
years millions to the Indian Imperial Exchequer — surely
British and Indian statesmen, and, above all, mercantile
men, should give unceasing attention to the growing pros-
perity of Burma. There is no sham in that quarter of
the British possessions in Asia. Our success has been, and
is, an earnest, living reality !

NOTE VI.

Manufacture of Paper from the Bamboo.

About the middle of last year (1880) the author of this
little work had the honour to receive two pamphlets from
Mr. Thomas Routledge ; the first (1875) on Bamboo Con-
sidered as a Paper-making Material, actually printed on
paper made by its author from bamboo ; and the next
(1879) on Bamboo and its Treatment. It was pleasing
for a writer to receive such an acknowledgment of his
being ever anxious to aid in developing the resources of
Burma ; and when the time came, in the present year, for
the reading of Sir Arthur Phayre's paper, and it was known

NOTES. 279

that Mr. Routledge would have something valuable to say
on the subject of the manufacture of paper from the
bamboo, the theme became one of especial interest. About
the same time appeared the prospectus of the Allahabad
and N.W.P. Paper Mills Company, Limited, when it was
thought that " the Government and the Central Govern-
ment Printing Press at Allahabad would be large consumers
of the paper locally produced, thus saving the cost of
carriage from Calcutta." To produce whiteness in the
paper, through a good bleaching process, has hitherto been
the grand difficulty in India. This the Company resolves
to do; and Mr. Eoutledge, in the specimens exhibited at
the Society of Arts — to say nothing of his pamphlet —
would appear to have nearly conquered the difficulty
already. For if good white paper can be made from
the bamboo or other materials by him at home, why
the same should not be done in India, with a little careful
supervision, it is difficult to say. Energy and practical
skill will overcome every difficulty, and of these attributes
Mr. Routledge has a share possessed by few workers in
this rapid, go-ahead age. On the present occasion
(13th May) he said " he was very glad to have an oppor-
tunity of adding a few remarks to the very interesting and
instructive paper, especially as being greatly desirous of
utilising some of the present waste products of Burma.
For nearly thirty years he had devoted his attention to
the utilisation of raw fibres for paper-making, and during
the last six or seven years had devoted himself especially
to the bamboo omnipresent in Burma as a valuable paper-
making material. There were numerous other fibrous

280 ASHJfe PYEE.

plants indigenous to that country, which might he culti-
Tated with advantage, hut the hamhoo received his special
attention, because it grew in almost inexhaustible abund-
ance, in many districts occupying many hundreds of square
miles, to the exclusion of all other vegetation, and the
facility of its treatment was unexampled. All the other
fibres, such as the aloe, the penguin, the plantain {tnusa
iextilis), &c., required a large amount of manipulation,
and, hitherto, no suitable machinery had been devised for
the purpose. This created a difficulty in utilising them,
because the country being sparsely populated, the labour
requisite for treating these fibres, which were chiefly suit-
able for textiles, could not be obtained. A paper-maker
was compelled, from the exigencies of his trade, to be con-
tent with the refuse of these fibres, and he feared that the
expense of producing them as textiles would, for some
years to come, be prohibitive. The bamboo, on the con-
trary, threw up long shoots every year, almost perennially
■ — for sixty or seventy years at least when once established.
All you had to do was to cut them down, pass them into
one of those streams with which the country abounded,
float them down to the port, crush them, and convert
them into rough 'stock' (a sample of which he produced )»
and there was the material that paper-makers were so much
in want of. These bamboos cost nothing but the collec-
tion, and though the population was sparse, he believed the
difficulty could be got over. Of course the population
could not live in the impenetrable jungle, but as it became
cleared, the population would follow, provided there
were occupation for them. In a small pamphlet, pub-

NOTES. A

lished some time ago, he drew a parallel between the
bamboo and asparagus, the main difference beiug that you
could only cut asparagus for five or six weeks, while the
bamboo season lasted several months. He believed it
would ultimately form a good textile material. The Bur-
mese made rope of it : the houses they lived in, the masts^
and spars of their vessels, and nearly everything else wa&
formed of bamboo. An important Blue Book had lately
been issued by the Government of India, written by Mr.
Liotard, of the Agricultural Department, giving a history
of the materials suitable for paper-making in India. As
he had said, Burma was exceedingly rich in other fibres,
as hemp, flax, jute, and the hibiscus tribe ; but all these,
like the aloe, required to be cultivated, to be cut and dried^
then steeped or retted, and then hand-manipulation wa^
needful to prepare them for the market; whereas the
bamboo required nothing at all. The process the bamboo
underwent was simply to crush the raw stem and boil it,
and reduce it to a tow-like condition, when it could be
compressed like jute or cotton, and it would then come
into the ordinary freightage of those articles — about forty-five
cubic feet to the ton. This was done by a process he had
patented in India. The bamboo, when dried and in its
natural condition, was very hard and intractable, and, with
any system of simple crushing, could not be brought into
a suitable bulk for freightage, which, after all, was a most
important point, as eff'ecting the cost of any raw material,
A ton of produce, whatever it might be, should not occupy
more than about forty cubic feet as dead weight ; but the
bamboo, crushed to the utmost possible extent, would

282 ASHi: pyee.

occupy ninety-six cubic feet, and if merely crushed in the
ordinary way, even under a pressure of two or three tons
to the square inch, would occupy 125 cubic feet, and,
therefore, it could not come to this country as a raw
material without some previous treatment. Treated as he
proposed, its cost here would be about the same as the very
■cheapest material in the market. He was glad to say that
be had received the very warmest support from the Indian
Government, and he was pleased to have this public
opportunity of expressing his acknowledgments to the
Chief Commissioner, Mr. Bernard ; Dr. Brandis, the
Inspector-General of Forests ; and Mr. Ribbentrop and
Major Seaton, the Forest Conservators, with whom he had
been in communication. There were at first some cavillers,
but on the whole they were now coming round to his
views. He had now a special concession from the Indian
Government in Burma, having chosen that province on
account of its very favourable climatic conditions, par-
ticularly the large amount of rainfall on the coast, which
was as much as 160 to 200 inches per annum. In some
parts there, rain or showers fell nine montlis out of the
twelve, which was very favourable to the rapid growth of
the bamboo. Towards the north there was not so much
rain. The soil was a rich loam, and in Arakan there was
an abundance of streams, which enabled you to float the
stuff -down to the port. (He produced samples of the
crushed bamboo, * paper-stock,* ' half-stuff,* and also
paper made entirely of bamboo.) Sir Arthur Phayre had
referred to the enormous increase in the shipments of rice
from Burma, and he might mention that the first shipment.

NOTES. 283

of 3,000 tons was made by his friend Mr. Begbie, in 1855.
In 1856, the shipments were 50,000 tons; and by 1860,
-80,000 tons; while, last year, they exceeded 800,000 tons.
He had tried rice- straw for paper, but it was too costly,
and not good enough. For the cultivation of rice in
Arakan they had been compelled to introduce labour from
Chittagong ; but where things would grow to give a profit,
labour would follow. In the southernmost parts of the
province, he was informed there was an abundance of
Chinese labour, and he had no doubt that if sufficient
inducement were ofifered to those industrious people, they
would make their way into other districts. Jute, again,
showed the same wonderful development as rice. In 1861,
the imports did not exceed 27,000 tons ; but last year they
exceeded 400,000 tons. Esparto had developed just in the
«ame way. In November 1856, a paper was read in that
room by Dr. Royle; and the Society's Journal, containing
the paper, was printed on esparto paper, which he (Mr.
Eoutledge) had then first introduced. In fact, in 1860, he
was the only paper-maker using it, whereas now 200,000
tons a year were used. It was now getting very scarce and
dear ; it had been almost exhausted in Spain ; the same
thing was occurring in Algeria ; and he feared the result
of the French interference in Tunis and Tripoli would be
to put a protective duty on it from there. Everything,
therefore, pointed to the desirabihty of developing the
resources of India and Burma, so that we might be inde-
pendent of foreign nations." — Where is the intelligent
Englishman who will not back Mr. Routledge in such an
opinion ?

liONDON :
PUINTKO BY W. H. AIjLKN AND CO., 13, WATKRLOO PLACK, S.W.

By the same Author.

In One Volume, 8ro., Price, 16s.

OUR BURMESE WARS

AND

RELATIONS WITH BURMA;

WITH A

Summary of Events from 1826 to 1879, including a Sketch of

King Theebau's Progress ; also various Local, Statistical,

and Comm£rcial Information.

WITH MAP AND MILITARY SKETCHES.

This work contains, in a convenient form, a large amount
of Military and other Information on a country destined ere
long to be more important than any other in Asia, and from
it nearly all the necessary information for a general know-
ledge of Ashe Pyee may be culled or collected.

OPINIONS OF THE PEESS.

(1880.)
The Athbnjeum.

" The publication of this volume is well timed No one

is better capable of treating the subject than Colonel Laurie, who
has made our relations with Burma his study, who served during the
war of 1852-53, and was for some years quartered in Pegu. . . .

W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, S.W.

W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, S.W.

He briefly describes the cause of the first war between the Burmese

and the British The events of the second war are related

by Colonel Laurie in detail Colonel Laurie enables his

readers to form an opinion on the present situation. He sums up the
arguments for and against the annexation of Upper Burma, and
remarks that the ' lord of misrule in that country seems bent on his
own destruction.' "

The Broad Arrow.

" Among the many men who have written about Burma, Colonel

Laurie deservedly occupies a distinguished position His

remarks on the operations under Sir Archibald Campbell will be found

invaluable in the event of a third war becoming necessary

In the fourth part we have a variety of papers on Burma which
should cheer the hearts of Mr. Fawcett and others who are disposed
to take a gloomy view of Indian finance, because in these papers
Colonel Laurie shows how valuable a possession Burma may become
•when its rich resources have been properly developed by British
enterprise Altogether, Colonel Laurie may be congratu-
lated upon having written a valuable work, and upon having
published it at a time when it is likely to be read. It is valuable to
the merchant and the politician, as well as to the Services."

The Academy.

" Colonel Laurie is evidently one of those writers who must be
allowed to tell their story in their own way. There is a pleasant
individuality in his style, which is vigorous, chatty, and, above all,
highly discursive."

Bell's Weekly Messenger.

" At a time when attention cannot but be immediately called to the
unsatisfactory conduct — to say the least of it — of the King of Burma,
it is of the utmost importance that the memory of past events should
be refreshed, that the present situation should be truly made known,
and that the probable future should be considered. For each and
all of these particulars Colonel Laurie's ably written volume is most
valuable."

W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, S.W.

W. H. AUen & Co., 18, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, S.W.

The British Mail.

" The volume is a complete history of Burma, British and Inde-
pendent, for the last fifty-six years The author does not

advocate annexation, far less an aggressive policy, and on this point

he has with him the British public and Government The

illustrations consist of a very excellent map of Central Burma, by
that safe and experienced geographer, Mr. Trelawny Saunders, and
some sketches of military operations. Whether viewed as a military,
a commercial, a political, a geographical, or an historical work, the
volume is a highly commendable production."

The Standabd.

" It is just possible that certain events have transpired that will
compel the next Parliament to decide definitely what is to be done
with Independent Burma. Under these circumstances. Colonel
W. r. B. Laurie's publication of Our Burmese Wars and Relations
with Burma, published by W. H. Allen and Co., Waterloo Place, Pall

Mall, may have a very timely use There is a good clear

map of Burma, from Rangoon to Mandalay, and from the coast of
Arakan to the Eastern edges of the Shan States."

Saturday Eeview.

*' Colonel Laurie's pages may serve to remind politicians of all
shades who have been dragged into the whirlpool of Anglo-Indian
discussion about treaties, frontiers, fringes of independent States, and
possible occupations of military posts, that to this hour we hold
Lower Burma and Pegu by the simple fact of our being there. . . .
Colonel Laurie, with both point and propriety, singles out for his
title-page the Governor-General's prompt and celebrated reply to the
Burmese Envoy who came to ask for the restitution of these
possessions, that ' the British flag should wave over them as long as
the sun shone in the heavens.' .... His narrative of the events of
1852, in which he took an active part, is spirited and correct."

W. H. AUen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, Pall MaU, S.W.

W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, Pall MaU, S.W.

The Army and Navy Gazette.

" The peculiar nature of our relations with Burma at the present
time lends a more than ordinary interest to the volume -just published

by Colonel Laurie The author most distinctly repudiates

any desire on his part to advocate an aggressive policy, or even

annexation Colonel Laurie's tvork is an interesting and

instructive one, either to the soldier or to the civilian. It treats of
momentous events that have occurred long since, and may, perhaps,
be partly forgotten. But the Burmese question has suddenly become
an anxious and perplexing one, vs^hich may, by any error in judgment,
or by ' masterly inactivity,' assume an importance far greater than
at present is accorded to it, and which must render highly valuable
such information as that contained in Our Burmese Wars and Relations
with Burma."

The Daily News.

" It was only the other day that we were alarmed by the prospect
of fresh Burmese complications — perhaps another Burmese war.
Colonel W. F. B. Laurie, who has just written a large volume on
Our Burmese Wars and Relations with Burma (W. H. Allen and Co.),
says with truth that Burma is a region little known to ' intelligent
Britons,' and he pleads quite reasonably for the public to give
attention to a country which he says has ' a greater future before it
than any country in Asia.' It appears that the work is in some sort a
second edition, re-written, of a previous publication of the author on
the same subject. We have a full account, or, as the writer terms it,
an abstract, of military and political operations during the two
Burmese wars — the first of 1824-26, the second of 1852-53. There
can be little doubt that Colonel Laurie is well informed on the subject
on which he writes, and he has conveyed a large amount of trust-
worthy information in a very readable form."

The London Figaro.

" This is a book which everyone who desires to be well up on a
question which is always important, and may some day be exciting,
should have on his library-shelf . . . . Whenever the' Burmese question
is to the fore, Colonel Laurie's book will be in great request, but
wise persons will not wait until then to acquaint themselves with it.
Such works are neither written, nor mastered, in a day."

W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, PaU MaU, S.W./^

y2) \i.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WM , BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
^mS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY

;r.Ll Increase to 50 c-- o, .h. .ourth

DAY AND TO $1-00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

APR 7. 1947

29MAR11CJI

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LD 21-100m-12,'43 (8796s)

YB 28430